Yoga and Adolescent Psychological Health, Depressive Symptoms, and Flourishing

255 Pages·2017·2.18 MB·English

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Erin Curran Schulte
University of Missouri-St. Louis
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Yoga and Adolescent Psychological Health, Depressive Symptoms, and Flourishing

Erin C. Schulte
BA, Marquette University, 2005
MEd, University of Missouri–Saint Louis, 2008

A Dissertation Submitted to The Graduate School at the
University of Missouri–St. Louis in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Education
with an emphasis in Educational Psychology

May, 2015

Advisory Committee

Marvin Berkowitz, PhD
Chairperson

Wolfgang Althof, PhD

Natalie Bolton, PhD

Brian Hutchison, PhD

Copyright, Erin C. Schulte, 2015

Abstract
The purpose of this concurrent mixed methods study was to investigate the
potential of yoga to increase positive psychological health, decrease depressive
symptoms, and increase flourishing in nonclinical high school students. Yoga was
incorporated as part of a physical education (PE) course at a suburban high school with
high school students (n = 27). Another section of the same course without yoga served as
the control group (n = 38).
Both groups completed the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CESD)
Scale to measure depressive symptoms, the Flourishing Scale for Teens, and the Positive
Emotion, Engagement, Positive Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment (PERMA)
Profiler to measure flourishing rates to gather quantitative data. All three measures were
given as a pretest, posttest, and delayed posttest. The qualitative data consisted of both
groups answering open-ended questions about their wellness and experience in PE/yoga
class at the same time that the students filled out quantitative questionnaires. In addition,
five students from the yoga group were interviewed about their experiences three times
throughout the semester separate from the other forms of data collection.
A multivariate analysis of variance and analyses of covariance were run on the
quantitative data to determine differences between groups on the quantitative data.
Qualitative content analysis was used to identify key themes in the interviews and written
answers. Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately first and then they
were analyzed together.
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No significant differences were found between groups on the quantitative
measures, except that the yoga group was found to have significantly less depressive
symptoms than the control group 5 months after the intervention.
Qualitative results show that it is feasible to implement yoga during the school
day; student depressive symptoms have the potential to be decreased through yoga by
increasing relaxation, decreasing anxiety, increasing energy, and increasing self-
confidence. Yoga has the potential to increase student flourishing through increased
positive emotion, increased positive relationships, and an increased sense of
accomplishment. Qualitative results also show that students noticed physical elements of
yoga, such as improved strength, balance, and flexibility.
Results are discussed separately and then together. Some of the quantitative and
qualitative data on overall positive psychological health, depressive symptoms, and
flourishing converged with the other form of data and some of it diverged from the other
form of data. These aspects are discussed and potential reasons behind the convergent
and divergent findings are noted.
These results suggest that yoga has the potential to be useful to schools to address
the adolescent depressive symptoms and flourishing.

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I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, Ray Schulte and Colleen-Curran Schulte. You
have always taught me the value and importance of education. I can never repay you for
loving me and supporting me even before I was born. I truly believe I hit the jackpot in
the parent lottery! Thank you, thank you, thank you… from the bottom of my heart, thank
you. I also dedicate this dissertation to my siblings, James Schulte and Caitlin Schulte.
You are two of my best friends. I thank you for giving me someone to look up to my
entire life. I have always wanted to be more like you.

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Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my committee, Dr. Marvin Berkowitz, Dr. Wolfgang
Althof, Dr. Natalie Bolton, and Dr. Brian Hutchison. The time and energy you put into
this dissertation helped make it what it is and helped me go beyond what I thought I was
capable of doing.
I would like to acknowledge Mr. Christopher Funk and Dr. Nathan Tyson. Thank
you for your expertise and advice on the statistics of this project. You were so giving of
your time when you did not have to be.
Finally, I would like to acknowledge the staff and students at Southtown Yoga.
Without your love, kindness, and unwavering support, this dissertation would not have
been possible, and I would not be who I am today.

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Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .......... 1
Depression............................................................................................................... 3
Positive Psychology .............................................................................................. 15
Yoga ...................................................................................................................... 26
Schools as Places to Promote Flourishing ............................................................ 39
Research Questions ............................................................................................... 39
Hypotheses ............................................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER 2: METHODS ................................................................................................ 42
Research Design.................................................................................................... 42
Sampling ............................................................................................................... 43
Sample................................................................................................................... 44
Procedure .............................................................................................................. 45
Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 48
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 54
Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS .................................................................................................. 65
Quantitative Results .............................................................................................. 66
Qualitative Results ................................................................................................ 76
Student Profiles ................................................................................................... 117
Written Responses .............................................................................................. 156
CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 172
Study Summary ................................................................................................... 172
Findings............................................................................................................... 173
Integration of Findings With Literature .............................................................. 188
Implications of Findings ..................................................................................... 193
Limitations .......................................................................................................... 196
Future Directions ................................................................................................ 199
Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 200
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 202
APPENDIX A: CES-D SCALE...................................................................................... 220
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS.................................................................. 221

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APPENDIX C: CODE BOOK ........................................................................................ 222
APPENDIX D: CONSENT FORM ................................................................................ 244
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List of Tables
Table Page
1 Demographic Data ................................................................................................ 68
2 Correlations Between Scales ................................................................................. 70
3 Depression Mean Scores ....................................................................................... 72
4 Depression ANCOVA at Time 2 .......................................................................... 73
5 Depression ANCOVA at Time 3 .......................................................................... 73
6 Flourishing Mean Scores ...................................................................................... 74
7 Overall PERMA Mean Scores .............................................................................. 74
8 Flourishing ANCOVA at Time 2 .......................................................................... 75
9 Flourishing ANCOVA at Time 3 .......................................................................... 75
10 Overall PERMA ANCOVA at Time 2 ................................................................. 76
11 Overall PERMA ANCOVA at Time 3 ................................................................. 76
12 Qualitative Coding Scores .................................................................................... 77
13 Wellness Contributions ....................................................................................... 157
14 Coping Mechanisms............................................................................................ 161
15 Feelings Around Yoga/PE Class ......................................................................... 164
16 Transfer of Yoga Techniques Among Yoga Students ........................................ 167
17 Telling Friends and Family About Class Among Yoga Students ....................... 169
18 Meaningful Parts of Class Among Yoga Students ............................................. 170

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