Whiteness Interrupted: Examining the Impact of Racialized Space on White Racial Identity

336 Pages·2017·1.607 MB·English

by  Marcus Bell

Syracuse University
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August 2017
Whiteness Interrupted: Examining the Impact of
Racialized Space on White Racial Identity
Marcus Bell
Syracuse University
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ABSTRACT
What does it mean to be white? This fundamental question stands at the heart of the
interdisciplinary field of critical whiteness studies. Critical whiteness studies (CWS)
epistemologically and theoretically upends traditional approaches to the study of race and racial
inequality by averting the critical gaze from racially subordinate groups and focusing it upon the
racially dominant group. Although insightful and highly influential, CWS has not sufficiently
incorporated racialized space as a theoretically meaningful concept. Far too often, critical
whiteness scholars speak of racial categories and racial experiences in board, spatially
generalized terms. My dissertation moves beyond the general question of what does it mean to be
white, and instead asks a more specific question: what does it mean to be white in nonwhite
racialized spaces? In order to answer this question, I use the responsive interview model to
interview 32 white teachers from a hyper-segregated, predominantly black school district in
Upstate New York. Contrary to the nearly ubiquitous notion that whites do not see or think of
themselves in racialized terms, my interview respondents not only saw themselves as distinctly
white, but they also spent a considerable amount of time thinking about what whiteness meant
for their personal and professional lives. My findings also show that, within nonwhite racialized
spaces, whiteness does not operate as the raceless norm, but instead functions as the racialized
other. For the teachers involved in this study, this particular spatial dynamic engendered an
experiential and epistemological shift in racial status. As the cultural and numerical minority
within predominantly black schools, my interview respondents developed a hyper-sense of racial
victimization, one that was specifically at odds with their construction of racial victimization
throughout society, writ large. Lastly, interview data also show that racialized space, while
highly determinative of racial experience, has a noticeable, yet limited effect on racial ideology.
Implications for society today and race relations going forward are also examined.
Whiteness Interrupted: Examining the Impact of Racialized Space on White
Racial Identity

By

Marcus Bell

B.S. Grand Valley State University, 2010
M.A. Syracuse University, 2014

Dissertation

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology

Syracuse University
August, 2017
Copyright © Marcus Bell 2017
All Rights Reserved
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To start, I would like to thank Dr. Amy Lutz, Dr. Barbara Applebaum, Dr. Arthur Paris, Dr. Prema
Kurien, and Dr. Mario Perez for being an amazing dissertation committee. Your guidance and support
have been invaluable throughout this long, grueling, and, at times, painful process. I especially would like
to acknowledge Dr. Amy Lutz, who constantly provided beneficial advice, assisted me with the IRB, and
put in overtime helping me edit and focus my writing. Other graduate professors I would like to thank
include Dr. Marjorie DeVault, Dr. Dawn Dow, Dr. Cecilia Green, and Dr. Dalia Rodriguez. All of you
played significant roles throughout my time at Syracuse University, and for that, I thank you. Also, I
would be remiss if I did not thank Janet Coria. Without you, the sociology department at Syracuse would
cease to exist.
Next, I would like to thank the amazing people who supported and encouraged me at Grand Valley State
University. Dr. Jennifer Stewart, Dr. Richard Yidana, Dr. George Lundskow, Dr. Lisa Hickman, Dr. Mary
DeYoung, Dr. Rachel Peterson, and especially Dolli Lutes, all of you took a young talkative know-it-all
and successfully prepared him for the rigor and responsibilities of graduate school. I would also like to
thank Act on Racism, the Sociology Club, Alpha Kappa Delta, and my McNair Scholars family (Delia,
Alfredo, Ebony, Katherine, Wendi, Mallory, and my homeboy Neil).
To my city, yes, I mean the actual city of Lansing. You will always be my home. Walnut Elementary
School, Pleasant View Elementary School, Pattengill Middle School, Eastern High School, 1016
Chestnut, 904 Pine, 518 S. Pennsylvania, the dirt road on Sidney Street, Spad’s Pizza, Olympic Broil, the
Frandor Deli, 40 cent Hot n’ Now cheeseburgers, the Fieldhouse, Lugnuts Stadium, teen night at Sparty’s,
the Dollar, the Lansing Mall, the Meridian Mall, and especially Friday Night Football…my childhood
belongs to you. I thank you.
I would also to thank my Day-One crew: Larry, Pedro, Dontaye, Corey, Sean, and Mike. You guys are
my brothers, period. We’ve had so many amazing times and we’ve created so many amazing memories.
From starting food fights at taking limousines at Pattengill to pep rallies and rocking tuxedos to the winter
ball at Eastern, I look back on our lives and know that I’m lucky to have you all as fiends. I always hated
that Larry was faster than me, I always hated that Corey was taller than me, and I really hated that Sean
had a better jump shot than me. I remember when I thought Mike was going to run my spot as starting
running back, and I remember contemplating running home after school because I thought Pedro was
going to beat me up. Ahh, good times. To Dontaye, I have a confession to make…it was me, not Larry,
who got dunked on by Marcus Taylor at Waverly. It’s been 20 years now, I’m finally at peace with it. I’m
beyond happy to see you all doing well. You have amazing partners and beautiful families. I know we
hardly get to see each other anymore, but please know that I’ll do anything for any of you on any day. If I
got it, you got it. We are family and always we will be. I love you all.
Other people from the 517 that I would like to thank include Nisha Duke, Erika Isela, Reuben Jackson,
Andrea Rosas, Sharese Mathis, Becky Green, Melissa Palacio, Marissa Palacio, Erica V, John Couthen,
Emily Marsi, Kyre Blair, Ian Townsend, Matt Duhaime, Damien Bridges, Bernadette Terranova, Ike
Davis (superheroes), Staci Hamm, Keesha Williams, Clark Woods, Larry Woods Sr., Kim Woods, Cheryl
Rene’e, Larry Burton Sr., Pedro Chavez Sr., Rev. Paul Garrett, Mark Fuller, and especially Lori Burton,
Isidra Chavez, Monica Chavez, Shairese Bush, and Christy Hernandez. Oh, and New Marcus and his
family.
To all the aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews and nieces. Auntie Celeste, Auntie Lois, Auntie Brenda, Auntie
Nancy, Auntie Judy, Auntie Shelia (R.I.P.), Auntie Pat, Auntie Pam, Uncle Starman, Uncle Paul, Uncle
Greedy, Uncle Lawrence, Uncle Duke, Uncle Daryl, Uncle Ozell (R.I.P.), Uncle Chicken, Lil Preston,
Dennis, Harry, Chelsea, Mike, Josh, Tina, Shelonda, Jone, Donyea, Sherita, Ebony, Brian (R.I.P.), Eddie
(R.I.P.), Elaisha, Lil Rick, Londo, Tre, Isaiah, Eddie, Khoumari, Jasmine, and anyone else that I am
forgetting, please know that I love you all and I’m thankful to have you in my life. We are crazy as hell,
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loud, obnoxious, and sometimes, downright ridiculous, but to be honest, I wouldn’t have it any other way.
You are my people, I miss you, dearly.
To my brothers and sisters: La Trice, Red, Tasha, Rickey, Leon, Mary, Ray, Justin, Tiffany, and Paul
GoHard Hammond (R.I.P.), there simply aren’t enough words to express how much you mean to me. You
all have supported and sacrificed for me since we were in diapers. I have memories going all the way
back to Franklin Elementary School in Gary, Indiana. When I think about our lives together, the
birthdays, the holidays (especially Christmas), the fights (y’all crazy), the dirt road, the tree house,
playing spooky-house, getting beat with a switch (it was never my fault, y’all crazy), playing spades, the
Blackhawks, Leon’s Pizza, Chestnut Street, Sidney Street, Shepard Street, Holmes, Lyons, Pine, etc., I
get emotional. We never really had much, but we always had each other, and for me, that was more than
enough. I know that I would not be where I am if not for your love and support. For so long, you were the
driving force that kept me going when I wanted to quit. You motivated me, encouraged me, and have
always had my back. Each and every one of you are a part me, I take you with me wherever I go. I love
you with all of my heart, and that will never change.
To my parents, Viola and Ernest Bell. There is no me without you. Everything that’s good in me comes
from you. Mom, I watched you pretend not to be hungry so we kids could eat. Pops, I saw you leave to go
to work at 5:30 in the morning, even though you had to walk across town in a Michigan winter. You
taught us, you sacrificed for us, you punished us, you held us accountable, you kept a roof over our heads,
but more than anything else, you loved us. There wasn’t a single time throughout my entire childhood
where I questioned whether or not I was loved. Mom, it’s been 15 years since you’ve passed away, but I
still remember your voice. I hear it in my head, telling me to do what’s right, not what’s easy. You taught
me to care for others, even when I didn’t think they deserved it. You showed me how to be kind, how to
be responsible, and you instilled me a lifelong love of reading, which, itself, has been essential to me
finishing this process. I so wish you were here to see the man that I’ve become. I, your youngest son, am
now father to a beautiful, amazing baby girl, with another one on the way. I’m more than honored to
name my daughters after you. I miss you every day. Dad, you are one wild dude, but you also are my
hero. I remember, as a 3rd grader at Walnut Elementary school, I was getting picked on by a 5th grader.
One day, I came home crying and said I was never going back to school. You made me go back the next
day, but then you showed after school ready for war. The moment I saw you ready to fight a 10 year old –
all in order to protect me – I knew I was in good hands. I wasn’t afraid of anyone after that, because I
knew my Pops, Butchy Bell, had my back. I’m the father I am today, because of the father you were to
me. We don’t see much of each other these days, but I promise you that will change. You are Superman
to me, I love you.
Lisa, my partner in crime, my better half, and – assuming you say yes to my text-message marriage
proposal – my future wife, this wouldn’t be possible without you. For close to five years now, you have
been my rock. You have supported and motivated through both happy and difficult times. You were there
for me when I passed my comprehensive exams, you were there for me when I defended my dissertation
proposal, and you were there for me when Paul died. That was a very difficult time for me, and I don’t
know how, or even if, I would have gotten through it without you by my side. My life is immeasurably
better because you are a part of it. I love our life together. Our home, our routine, our mutual love of
Christmas and pumpkin spice creamer. I love everything about you, from your beautiful smile to your
beautiful heart, but more than anything else, I love your devotion to our family. Tristan, Maliah, Viola,
and I are lucky to have you in our lives. We would be lost without you. You are an amazing, incredible,
and beautiful person. I’m so excited for our future together. Oh, just in case the preceding pages didn’t tip
you off, I’m going to have anywhere from 15 to 45 groomsmen at our wedding. Hey, it is what it is. I love
you.
To my daughters. My babies, my mini-me’s, my loves. You are my inspiration. Everything I do, I do for
you. Maliah Pearl, my life changed on the day that you were born. I was terrified, nervous, and excited all
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at the same time, but now, I am only grateful. I’m grateful to see your smile. I’m grateful to hear your
laugh. In short, I’m grateful to be your father. You are an AMAZING little girl, and being daddy is the
most important thing I will ever do. Viola Rose, you are almost here and I simply cannot wait to meet
you. I think about you every day. I don’t yet know if you’ll be a fussy sleeper or whether or not you’ll
take a pacifier, but I do know that I love you with all of my heart. Daddy’s girls. I love the way that
sounds. You two are my everything. You are my world. You are my heart. Daddy loves you and I only
hope to make you proud.
Lastly, this dissertation would not have been possible without the numerous teachers who opened up and
shared their lives with me. Our interviews were humorous, emotional, gut-wrenching and heart-warming.
I’m grateful to each and every one of you, and I thank you for your commitment and devotion to your
students. Teaching in urban schools is a very difficult job, and many of you are over-worked and under-
appreciated. Please know that I appreciate and respect all of the hard work you put in as educators,
especially to students that society has already written off as lost causes. Again, thank you for making this
project possible. I wish you all the best of luck in your future endeavors.

With love, respect, and the upmost appreciation, I thank you.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................................................................................................................... 10
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................................ 11
RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................................................................. 13
DEMOGRAPHIC GAP .................................................................................................................................. 13
CENTRAL CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT............................................................................................................. 14
OVERVIEW OF DISSERTATION.................................................................................................................... 18
REFLEXIVE STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................ 19

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 22
SOCIOLOGY OF RACE/WHITE INVISIBILITY................................................................................................ 25
RACE AND BIOLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 25
RACE AND SOCIAL STRUCTURE ................................................................................................................. 27
CULTURE OF POVERTY .............................................................................................................................. 30
NEW RACISMS/RACIAL FORMATION THEORY ........................................................................................... 33
RISE OF CRITICAL WHITENESS STUDIES .................................................................................................... 36
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF WHITENESS/ETHNIC ASSIMILATION ............................................................... 38
WHITENESS AS THE RACELESS NORM ....................................................................................................... 41
WHITENESS AS A STRUCTURAL ADVANTAGE ............................................................................................ 43
WHITENESS AS A RACIAL STANDPOINT ..................................................................................................... 46
LIMITATIONS OF CRITICAL WHITENESS THEORY ....................................................................................... 49
URBAN EDUCATION AND THE MAKING OF NONWHITE SPACE ................................................................... 52
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 60

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 63
OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE METHODS .................................................................................................... 64
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 68
RESPONSIVE INTERVIEW MODEL ............................................................................................................... 71
PURPOSEFUL/THEORETICAL SAMPLE ........................................................................................................ 75
ENTERING THE FIELD ................................................................................................................................ 77
RECRUITMENT/SNOWBALL SAMPLE .......................................................................................................... 79
THE INTERVIEWS ....................................................................................................................................... 81
A METHODOLOGICAL DILEMMA ............................................................................................................... 85
GETTING BACK IN/EXITING THE FIELD ...................................................................................................... 91
DATA ANALYSIS........................................................................................................................................ 94
THEORETICAL SATURATION ...................................................................................................................... 98
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 100

CHAPTER 4: BECOMING WHITE: SPATIAL SOCIALIZATION AND RACIALIZING THE RACELESS
NORM
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 101
WHITE RACELESSNESS ............................................................................................................................ 103
DEMOGRAPHIC DEFLECTION ................................................................................................................... 108
SPATIAL SOCIALIZATION ......................................................................................................................... 114
RACIALIZED DISCOURSE (STUDENT/STUDENT) ....................................................................................... 118
RACIALIZED DISCOURSE (TEACHER/STUDENT) ....................................................................................... 123
BECOMING WHITE ................................................................................................................................... 128
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SEEING WHITE......................................................................................................................................... 130
FEELING WHITE ....................................................................................................................................... 134
BEING WHITE .......................................................................................................................................... 140
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 148
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 150

CHAPTER 5: THE WHITE RACE CARD: EXAMINING THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACIAL
VICTIMIZATION
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 152
THE RACE CARD ..................................................................................................................................... 154
POLITICAL CORRECTNESS ........................................................................................................................ 155
MAKING EXCUSES ................................................................................................................................... 160
VICTIM MENTALITY ................................................................................................................................ 161
WHITE PRIVILEGE ................................................................................................................................... 165
THE WHITE RACE CARD .......................................................................................................................... 168
SPATIAL VICTIMIZATION ......................................................................................................................... 169
REVERSE DISCRIMINATION...................................................................................................................... 170
COLLECTIVE WHITENESS ........................................................................................................................ 177
BLACK PRIVILEGE ................................................................................................................................... 182
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 191
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 193

CHAPTER 6: RACE-CONSCIOUS WHITENESS: NEGOTIATING COLORBLIND DISCOURSE AND
WHITE RACIAL EXPERIENCE
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 195
THE WHITE RACIAL FRAME .................................................................................................................... 198
COLORBLIND DISCOURSE ........................................................................................................................ 200
RACE RELATIONS .................................................................................................................................... 204
POST-RACIAL DISCOURSE ....................................................................................................................... 208
SPATIAL NEGOTIATION ........................................................................................................................... 213
RHETORICAL INCOHERENCE .................................................................................................................... 216
RACIAL RATIONALIZATION ..................................................................................................................... 221
AUTHENTIC GRIEVANCE .......................................................................................................................... 227
RELUCTANT RECOGNITION ...................................................................................................................... 236
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 242
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 244

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION: WHITE RACIAL IDENTITY IN A DARKENING AMERICA
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 246
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS .......................................................................................................................... 248
DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................................. 251
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTIONS ..................................................................................... 257
LIMITATIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 259
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................................................... 262
FINAL THOUGHTS .................................................................................................................................... 263

APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................................... 265

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 290

VITAE ................................................................................................................................................... 331
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1

WHITENESS INTERRUPTED: EXAMINING THE IMPACT OF RACIALIZED SPACE
ON WHITE RACIAL IDENTITY

Marcus Bell

“As the unmarked category against which difference is constructed, whiteness never has to speak
its name.”
George Lipsitz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness.1

“Sometimes I just want to stand up and shout, ‘look, I’m white ok, get over it!’”
Rebecca Darling, Brick City High School.2
Introduction
What does it mean to be white in America? This fundamental question stands at the heart
of the interdisciplinary and burgeoning field of critical whiteness studies (Delgado and Stefancic,
1997; Frankenberg, 1993; Hill, 1997; Yancy, 2012). Gaining academic legitimacy only within
the last few decades,3 critical whiteness studies (CWS) epistemologically and theoretically
upends traditional approaches to the study of race by averting the critical gaze from racially
subordinate groups and focusing it upon the racially dominant group (Morrison, 1993). In the
context of the United States, this shift has led to a substantial, and sustained, empirical
investigation into a variety of topics, including white racial identity, white racial discourse, and
whiteness as a site power, privilege, and prestige. From philosophy to psychology, legal studies
to education, and sociology to history, critical whiteness studies empirically interrogates
whiteness and white supremacy, and it does so across the disciplinary spectrum (Doane and
Bonilla-Silva, 2003; Harris, 1993; Helms, 1990; Jacobson, 1999; Leonardo, 2009; Lewis, 2004;
Lopez, 2006; McIntyre, 1997; Mills, 2007; Rodiger, 2006; Tatum, 2013; Yancy, 2012).