Table Of ContentTitle Pages
University Press Scholarship Online
Oxford Scholarship Online
Tundra-Taiga Biology
Robert M. M. Crawford
Print publication date: 2013
Print ISBN-13: 9780199559404
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: May 2015
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199559404.001.0001
Title Pages
(p.i) Tundra-Taiga Biology
(p.ii) (p.iii) Tundra-Taiga Biology
Tundra-Taiga Biology. First Edition. R.M.M. Crawford ©
R.M.M. Crawford 2013.
© Published 2013 by Oxford University Press.
(p.iv)
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the
University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence
in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is
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Title Pages
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain
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© R. M. M. Crawford 2014
The moral rights of the author have been
asserted
First Edition published in 2014
Impression: 1
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Library of Congress Control Number:
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ISBN 978–0–19–955940–4 (hbk.)
978–0–19–955941–1 (pbk.)
Printed in the UK by
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Title Pages
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in this work.
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Preface
(p.v)
University Press Scholarship Online
Oxford Scholarship Online
Tundra-Taiga Biology
Robert M. M. Crawford
Print publication date: 2013
Print ISBN-13: 9780199559404
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: May 2015
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199559404.001.0001
Preface
(p.v)
The Arctic is changing. How it will change is uncertain. In
contemplating the future in the far north a distinction has to
be made between the maritime and terrestrial Arctic. The
Arctic Ocean is a relatively monotonous region whether it be
frozen or unfrozen. By contrast the terrestrial Arctic, the
Tundra and Taiga, are ecologically very diverse with habitats
ranging from polar mountains and deserts to frozen expanses
of Tundra, giving way in the south to the bogs and forests of
the Taiga. Now that the Earth is warming there is a need to
examine how these varied regions will respond to a changing
world. All life in polar regions has to contend with similar
problems irrespective of whether it is plant, animal, or human.
This book is therefore an attempt to provide a circumpolar
perspective of evolution and adaptation in a region with short
growing seasons and variable temperature conditions.
The terrestrial Arctic has undergone many changes in the
past. There is nevertheless one common feature that is
inescapable, irrespective of climate change and that is the
capacity to survive the long polar winter. Fundamental to all
residents of polar regions is the need for the provision of
reserves for long adverse seasons. This is common to both
plants and animals, just as it demands foresight and planning
Page 1 of 2
Preface
(p.v)
for human settlers. This facet of arctic life has left an imprint
on the evolution of the present-day flora and fauna, with a
biota that has specialized in adapting to a range of very
different habitats. Just how these different Tundra and Taiga
habitats will respond ecologically to change will depend in
large measure on the adaptive ability of the inhabitants, plant,
animal, and human. The facility for adaptation in arctic life is
therefore discussed in terms of physiology, reproduction,
migration, and dormancy, together with relevant genetic case
histories from the northern flora and fauna and its human
settlers.
Recent advances in genetics, and molecular biology are
providing a new assessment of the evolutionary and ecological
history of the plants, animals, as well as the human
inhabitants in this region. Every effort has therefore been
made to discuss these exciting developments in plain English.
Technical terms when needed are defined within the text when
this can be done briefly. Terms that require more extensive
definition are explained in the Glossary.
Page 2 of 2
Acknowledgements
(p.vi)
University Press Scholarship Online
Oxford Scholarship Online
Tundra-Taiga Biology
Robert M. M. Crawford
Print publication date: 2013
Print ISBN-13: 9780199559404
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: May 2015
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199559404.001.0001
Acknowledgements
(p.vi)
This book would never have materialized had it not been for
the patience and help of those who have given me the benefit
of their specialist knowledge of northern lands. I am especially
grateful to colleagues who have either read chapters or given
detailed comments. In Scotland this has included Professor
R.J. Abbott, Dr Jean Balfour, Dr Torben Ballin, Mr J.R.
Stapleton, and Dr Fiona Vincent. From further afield I am
indebted to Professor Inger Greve Alsos (Tromsø), Professor
Ch. Brochmann (Oslo), Professor K. Fagerstedt (Helsinki), Dr
Eva Fuglei (Tromsø), Dr B.E. Gudleifsson (Akureyri), Dr Anne
Gunn (British Columbia), Professor K.-E. Holtmeier (Münster),
Professor Ch. Körner (Bale), Dr F.H. Schwarzenbach (Bern),
and Dr K.P. Timoney (Alberta). Their combined knowledge has
added greatly to my own understanding of northern
phenomena and may also have saved me from error; if not the
fault is entirely mine.
I am particularly appreciative of having received detailed
documentation as well as access to extensive collections of
images from distant places from Professor Bruce Forbes
(Rovaniemi), Dr F. Fyodoroov (Petrozavodsk), Dr A. Gerlach
(Oldenburg), Dr T. Hajék (Trebon), Professor S.N. Kirpotin
(Tomsk), Dr H. Körner (Freiburg), Dr A.H. Jahren (Hawai’i), Dr
Page 1 of 2
Acknowledgements
(p.vi)
Már Jonsson (Reykjavik), Clare Kines (Baffin Island), Michael
Pealow (Yukon), Dr G. Rees (Cambridge), Charles Woodley
(Ottawa), and Dr N. Warnock (Anchorage). The privilege of
using these northern images is acknowledged in the legends.
Unattributed images are the copyright of the author. My own
opportunities for studying plants in the North have been
greatly aided by research assistance from Dr Hazel M.
Chapman and Dr Lisa C. Smith, together with generous
financial assistance from the Natural Environment Research
Council and The Carnegie Trust for the Universities of
Scotland.
A work of this nature would not have been undertaken had it
not been for the stimulation and encouragement provided by
Oxford University Press and I am particularly indebted to Ian
Sherman for the initial imaginative prompting that made me
attempt this task, and for bringing it to completion. In this
final task I am immeasurably indebted to the production staff
for their patience and painstaking care in the final stages of
preparation for publication.
Page 2 of 2
Arctic climate history
University Press Scholarship Online
Oxford Scholarship Online
Tundra-Taiga Biology
Robert M. M. Crawford
Print publication date: 2013
Print ISBN-13: 9780199559404
Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: May 2015
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199559404.001.0001
Arctic climate history
R. M. M. Crawford
DOI:10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199559404.003.0001
Abstract and Keywords
This chapter begins by considering the Arctic as a human
concept with origins in antiquity. Aristotle (384–322 BC)
postulated the existence of a northerly Frigid Zone where
human life would be impossible. Unlike the Antarctic, the
concept of the frozen Arctic began and remains an idea. It
originated as a supposition denoting a region that was
imagined but unseen by the civilized world, despite the fact
that human beings had been living there for 27,000 years. The
chapter then describes the characteristics of polar climates,
covering temperature regime variations, sea levels and
oceanicity, the polar night, and Climatic consequences of
winter ice. This is followed by discussions of polar climatic
history, Cenozoic temperature changes, and Pleistocene
climate changes.
Keywords: Arctic, polar climatic history, climate change, Cenozoic, Pleistocene
Page 1 of 34
Arctic climate history
1.1 The concept of the Arctic
The Arctic is a human concept with its origins in antiquity.
Over 2,000 years ago Aristotle (384–322 bc) postulated the
existence of a northerly Frigid Zone where human life would
be impossible. Unlike the Antarctic, the concept of the frozen
Arctic began and remains an idea. It originated as a
supposition denoting a region that was imagined but unseen
by the civilized world, despite the fact that human beings had
been living there for 27,000 years (see Chapter 3).
For the Ancient Greeks this imaginary Frigid Zone lay under
the constellation of the Great Bear (Latin Ursa major, Greek
Arctuous—bear) a circumpolar constellation circling the pole
star (Figure 1.1). Ptolemy, the Greek Astronomer (ad 87–ca.
170), named and recorded, amongst many other celestial
objects, the elevations of the paws of the Great Bear.
The Arctic was
ever a place of
mystery and in
Greek
mythology was
the supposed
home of the
Hyperboreans,
a fortunate
race who were
thought to
avoid the
rigours of the
Frigid Zone by FFiigguurree 11..11 TThhee ccllaassssiiccaall ccoonncceeppttiioonn ooff
inhabiting a tthhee ccoonnsstteellllaattiioonn ooff tthhee GGrreeaatt BBeeaarr.. TThhiiss
sunny land ccoonnsstteellllaattiioonn iiss kknnoowwnn iinn tthhee BBrriittiisshh IIsslleess
beyond the aass tthhee PPlloouugghh,, iinn NNoorrtthh AAmmeerriiccaa aass tthhee
source of the
BBiigg DDiippppeerr ((dduuee ttoo tthhee rreesseemmbbllaannccee ttoo aa
north winds
llaaddllee)),, aanndd iinn GGeerrmmaanniicc aanndd SSllaavviicc
(Boreas—god
llaanngguuaaggeess bbyy aa vvaarriieettyy ooff nnaammeess mmeeaanniinngg
of the north
aa llaarrggee wwaaggoonn oorr ccaarrtt..
wind).
((IImmaaggee ccoouurrtteessyy ooff DDrr FF..RR.. ZZaabbrriisskkiiee))..
Page 2 of 34
Arctic climate history
1.1.1 Defining the Arctic
As with all concepts, the Arctic can be subject to variations in
interpretation. Even today, defining the Arctic presents
problems. For those who dislike geographical uncertainty, the
Arctic may be conveniently delineated as that region of the
Earth that lies within the Arctic Circle, the latitude at which
the sun fails to rise for at least one day in the year (66.56°N).
However, the land that lies north of the Arctic Circle contains
a wide variety of habitats over a large area and in many places
can support commercial forestry and even agriculture.
Equally, there are regions south of the Arctic Circle that
resemble regions to the north of this somewhat arbitrary
boundary.
A consequence of the ability of some northern tree species to
tolerate partially frozen soil profiles is seen in the nature of
the arctic treeline which shows considerable geographic
variation (Figure 1.2). In many regions there is also a marked
and extensive transition zone, the Tundra-Taiga Interface. In
places this zone of ecological uncertainty can be up to 600 km
wide (see Chapter 5). In Eurasia this is commonly referred to
as Forest-Tundra (Russian—lesotundra), as in many regions,
and particularly in Russia, the vegetation resembles areas to
the north of this somewhat arbitrary treeline boundary. The
actual position of the Arctic Circle is therefore not of great
interest ecologically as it denotes little but its (p.2)
Page 3 of 34
