Table Of ContentTIMA WORD STRUCTURE
(NOUN AND VERB)
By: Suzan Alamin Mubarak
B.A (honors) in Linguistics and M.A in Sudanese and African
Languages (IAAS), U of K
A thesis submitted to the Postgraduate College, University of
Khartoum, in fulfillment of the requirements of Ph.D. in
Linguistics
Supervisor: Prof. Al-Amin Abu-Manga
Co-Supervisor: Prof. Gerrit J. Dimmendaal
Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Arts,
University of Khartoum
April 2009
Dedication
To my mother Tahiya,
my husband Mohammed,
and to my children Mugtaba, Mustafa, and Munya
Table of Contents
Abstract (English) ix
Abstract (Arabic) x
Acknowledgment xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Tables xvi
List of Figures xvii
Map 1 xviii
Map 2 xix
Chapter One: Introductory Notes
1.0 Introduction………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Language family……………………………………..........1
1.2 Language name and community…………………………. 3
1.3 Language endangerment…………………………………. 5
1.4 Previous studies……………………………………........... 7
1.5 Data collection…………………………………………. 10
1.6 Fieldwork……………………………………………….. 11
1.7 Presentation of language data……………………………11
1.8 Organization of the study……………………………….. 11
Chapter Two: Review of Literature
2.0 Introduction……………………………………………... 14
2.1 The study of word-structure…………………………….. 14
2.1.1 The notion of a word……………………………………. 15
2.1.2 Clitics…………………………………………………… 17
I
2.2 The structure of words…………………………………...18
2.2.1 Types of morphological processes……………………… 19
2.2.1.1 Affixes…………………………………………………... 19
2.2.1.2 Stem modifications…………………………………........20
2.2.1.3 Reduplication…………………………………………… 22
2.2.1.4 Compounding …………………………………………... 24
2.2.1.5 Suppletion………………………………………………. 26
2.3 The noun…………………………………………………27
2.3.1 Number marking system…………………………………27
2.3.2 Noun class system………………………………………. 29
2.4 The verb………………………………………………… 34
2.4.1 Verb structure…………………………………………… 35
2.4.1.1 Pronominal marker……………………………………… 36
2.4.1.2 Tense/ Aspect/ Mood…………………………………… 37
2.4.1.3 Negation………………………………………………… 40
2.4.1.4 Verb extensions (VEs)………………………………….. 40
2.4.1.5 Pluractional………………………………………………42
2.4.2 Head-marking language………………………………… 43
Chapter Three: The Noun and its Modifiers
3.0 Introduction……………………………………………... 46
3.1 Tima noun classes………………………………………. 47
3.1.1 Singular noun class prefixes……………………………..48
3.1.1.1 Singular prefix /k-/……………………………………… 48
3.1.1.1a Singular allomorph prefix kɪ-/ki-……………………….. 52
3.1.1.1b Singular allomorph prefix kɘ-/ kɨ………………………. 54
II
3.1.1.1c Singular allomorph prefixes kʊ-/ ku-…………................55
3.1.1.1d Singular allomorph prefixes ka-/ kʌ……………………. 57
3.1.1.2 Singular prefix class c-…………………………………. 59
3.1.1.3 Singular prefix class t̪……………………………. ……. 60
3.1.1.4 Zero singular prefix……………………………………... 61
3.1.2 Plural noun class prefixes………………………………. 65
3.1.2.1 Plural prefix ɪ-/i-…………………………………..……. 65
3.1.2.1a The plural allpmorph iu………………………………… 66
3.1.2.1b The plural allomorph y-………………………………… 67
3.1.2.1c Zero plural allomorph prefix ø…………………………. 68
3.1.2.2 Variation between speakers…………………………….. 70
3.1.3 Mass Nouns…………………………………………….. 73
3.1.3.1 Collective and singulative nouns……………………….. 74
3.1.4 The 'd-' noun class prefix……………………………….. 77
3.1.5 Locative markers on nouns………………………………78
3.1.5.1 The 'lV-' noun class prefix……………………………… 78
3.1.5.2 The proclitic locative marker 'ɪ-/ i-'...................................82
3.1.5.3 Locative marker with body part nouns…………………..83
3.1.5.4 Locative marker '(n)tV-' ………………………………... 87
3.1.5.5 Contactive marker 'nɛ-/ ne-' on nouns…………………. 89
3.1.6 Direction marker 'ɪ-/ i-' on nouns……………………….. 90
3.1.7 Instrumental marker '(V)ŋ-' on nouns……………………91
III
3.1.7.1 Instrumental marker '(V)ŋ-/ (V) -' with body parts……..92
ɲ
3.1.8 Source marker (a-) on nouns…………………………… 92
3.1.8.1 Source marker 'a-' with body part nouns……………….. 94
3.1.9 Comitative/associative marker 'nV-' on nouns………….. 96
3.1.9.1 Other form of the comitative/ associative
marker in Tima: 'an-' and 'ad -'……………………….. 97
ɘ
3.1.10 Other markers on Tima nouns…………………………... 98
3.1.11 Suppletive nouns…………………………………........... 99
3.1.12 Kinship terms………………………………………….. 100
3.2 Nominal modifiers……………………………………...103
3.2.1 Adjectives……………………………………………… 103
3.2.1.1 Canonical shape of adjectives…………………………. 104
3.2.1.2 The functions of the adjectives…………………………105
3.2.2 Numerals………………………………………………. 113
3.2.2.1 Cardinal Numbers………………………………………113
3.2.2.2 Ordinal Numbers………………………………………. 115
3.2.2.3 Numbers agreement…………………………………….116
3.2.3 Non-numeral quantifiers………………………………..121
3.2.4 Demonstratives……………………………………........ 123
3.2.5 Possessive construction………………………………... 127
3.2.5.1 Pronominal possessive………………………………… 127
3.2.5.2 Nominal possessive……………………………………. 130
3.2.6 NP's constituents order………………………………… 135
Chapter Four: The Verb Morphology
4.0 Introduction……………………………………………. 137
IV
4.1 Tima verb root structure………………………………. 137
4.1.1 Monosyllabic verb roots……………………………….. 138
4.1.2 Disyllabic verb roots……………………………………139
4.1.3 Reduplicated verbs…………………………………….. 140
4.1.4 Compound verbs………………………………………..140
4.1.5 Inflected verbs…………………………………………. 141
4.2 The verb as a word-structure…………………………... 142
4.3 Tima pronominal system………………………………. 148
4.3.1 Free personal pronouns…………………………………148
4.3.2 Pronominal markers on verbs…………………………..150
4.3.2.1 The subject markers…………………………………… 151
4.3.2.1.1 The subject ergative enclitics markers………………… 156
4.3.2.2 The object markers…………………………………….. 156
4.4 Tense, Aspect and Mood Forms………………………..158
4.4.1 Tense……………………………………………………158
4.4.1.1 Future…………………………………………………...159
4.4.1.1.1 Indefinite vs definite future…………………………… 160
4.4.1.1.1a Indefinite future………………………………………... 161
4.4.1.1.1b Definite future…………………………………………. 162
4.4.1.2 Non-future……………………………………………... 166
4.4.1.2.1 Past tense………………………………………………. 166
4.4.1.2.1a Recent past…………………………………………….. 168
4.4.1.2.1b Remote past……………………………………………. 169
4.4.1.2.2 Present tense…………………………………………… 172
4.4.2 Aspect…………………………………………………. 174
4.4.2.1 Progressive aspect…………………………………….. 174
4.4.2.1a Progressive past……………………………………….. 176
4.4.2.2 Habitual aspect………………………………………… 178
4.4.2.3 The perfective vs. imperfective aspect………………… 181
V
4.4.2.4 Telic/atelic verbs………………………………………. 183
4.4.3 Mood……………………………………………………205
4.4.3.1 The imperative mood………………………………….. 205
4.4.3.2 The subjunctive mood…………………………………. 208
4.4.3.3 Indicative mood………………………………………... 209
4.4.3.4 Veridical mood………………………………………... 209
4.5 Verbal derivation………………………………………. 211
4.5.1 Operations of increasing valency……………………… 212
4.5.1.1 Transitive suffixes……………………………………... 212
4.5.1.2 Pluractional formation in Tima………………………... 215
4.5.1.3 Causative………………………………………………. 220
4.5.1.4 Instrumental marker on verbs…………………………. 223
4.5.1.5 Applicative…………………………………………….. 225
4.5.1.5.1 Benefactive……………………………………………. 226
4.5.1.5.2 Recipient………………………………………………. 229
4.5.2 Operations of decreasing valency……………………... 230
4.5.2.1 Middle voice……………………………………………230
4.5.2.1.1 Reflexive……………………………………………… 231
4.5.2.1.2 Reciprocal………………………………………………232
4.5.2.2 Antipassive…………………………………………… 234
4.5.2.3 Passive………………………………………………… 236
4.5.2.4 Ventive………………………………………………… 239
4.5.2.5 The separative suffix '-uk'…………………………….. 241
4.5.2.6 Reversive suffix '-Vl'………………………………….. 243
4.5.2.7 Verbal adjective……………………………………….. 244
4.5.3 Complex derivational processes……………………….. 248
4.6 Verbal negation………………………………………... 254
4.6.1 Negative declarative…………………………………... 255
VI
4.6.2 Negative imperative, subjunctive and certainity……… 257
4.6.3 Perfective and imperfective negation…………………. 260
Chapter Five: Nominalization and Compounding
5.0 Introduction……………………………………………. 263
5.1 Nominalized Forms……………………………………. 264
5.1.1 Tima Verbal Nouns……………………………………. 264
5.1.1.1 Tima verbal nouns classes……………………………... 266
5.1.1.2 Verbal nouns with two forms …………………………. 271
5.1.1.3 Pluractional in verbal nouns…………………………… 273
5.1.1.4 Number marking system on verbal nouns……............... 274
5.1.1.5 Notes on the formation of verbal nouns……………….. 276
5.1.1.6 Functions of verbal nouns……………………………... 280
5.1.2 Agentive nouns…………………………………………281
5.1.3 Abstract nouns………………………………………… 286
5.1.3.1 Abstract nouns derived from verbs……………………. 287
5.1.3.2 Abstract nouns derived from adjectives……………….. 288
5.1.4 Diminutive nouns……………………………………… 291
5.1.5 Reduplicated Nouns…………………………………… 295
5.1.5.1 Fully reduplicated nouns………………………………. 296
5.1.5.2 Partially reduplicated nouns…………………………… 299
5.1.6 Ideophonic Nouns……………………………………... 299
5.1.6.1 Ideophones describing animals' sounds……………….. 300
5.1.6.2 Ideophones describing objects/ body parts/ sounds…… 301
5.2 Compounding………………………………………….. 302
5.2.1 Endocentric compounds……………………………….. 303
5.2.2 Exocentric compounds………………………………… 304
5.2.3 Co-ordinate compounds……………………………….. 305
VII
5.2.4 Appositional compounds………………………………. 306
5.2.5 Compounds which contain 'bound words'……………... 307
General Summary………………………………………………... 312
References …………………………………………………………317
VIII
