Tilapia culture

293 Pages·2006·5.52 MB·English

by  Abdel-Fattah M El-Sayed

Tilapia Culture
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Tilapia Culture
Abdel-Fattah M. El-Sayed
Oceanography Department, Faculty of Science,
Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
CABIPublishing
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© A.-F.M. El-Sayed 2006. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
copyright owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London,
UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
El-Sayed, Abdel-Fattah M., 1950-
Tilapia culture / Abdel-Fattah M. El-Sayed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-85199-014-9 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-85199-014-2 (alk. paper)
1. Tilapia. I. Title
SH167.T54E42 2006
639.3′774--dc22
2005012005
Typeset in Baskerville by AMA DataSet Ltd, UK.
Printed and bound in the UK byBiddles Ltd, King’s Lynn.
Contents
ForewordR.R. Stickney xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
1 Current State and Future Potential 1
1.1 Historical Review 1
1.2 Global Tilapia Production 3
1.2.1 Capture fisheries 3
1.2.2 Aquaculture 3
1.2.3 Major producers 5
1.2.4 Major cultured species 6
1.3 Tilapia Production in Asia 7
1.3.1 Major producers 9
1.3.2 Major cultured species 12
1.4 Tilapia Production in Africa 13
1.4.1 Major producers 13
1.4.2 Major cultured species 17
1.5 Tilapia Production in South America 17
1.5.1 Major producers 17
1.5.2 Major cultured species 17
1.6 Tilapia Production in North America and the Caribbean 20
1.6.1 Major producers 20
1.6.2 Major cultured species 20
1.7 Future Potential 20
1.8 Constraints 24
2 Basic Biology and Ecology 25
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Taxonomy 25
2.3 Body Shape and External Morphology 26
2.4 Geographical Distribution 26
2.5 Factors Affecting Tilapia Distribution 28
2.5.1 Habitat diversity 28
2.5.2 Environmental conditions 28
v
vi Contents
2.6 Introductions and Transfers 28
2.6.1 Introductions in Africa 28
2.6.2 Introductions outside Africa 29
2.7 Feeding Habits 29
2.8 Gut Morphology 32
2.9 Closing Remarks 33
3 Environmental Requirements 34
3.1 Introduction 34
3.2 Temperature 34
3.3 Salinity 38
3.4 Dissolved Oxygen 41
3.5 Ammonia and Nitrite 42
3.5.1 Ammonia 42
3.5.2 Nitrite 43
3.6 pH 43
3.7 Photoperiod 44
3.8 Water Turbidity 45
3.9 Closing Remarks 46
4 Semi-intensive Culture 47
4.1 Introduction 47
4.2 An Overview of Pond Fertilization 47
4.3 Fertilization of Tilapia Ponds 48
4.3.1 Organic fertilizers 48
4.3.2 Inorganic fertilizers 52
4.3.3 Periphyton-based pond culture 52
4.4 Supplemental Feeding 53
4.4.1 Rationale 53
4.4.2 Timing of supplemental feeding 54
4.4.3 On-farm feed resources 55
4.4.4 On-farm feed formulation and preparation 57
4.5 Polyculture 59
4.6 Integrated Culture 61
4.6.1 Tilapia culture in rice fields 61
4.6.2 Animal–tilapia culture 65
4.7 Economic Efficiency of Integrated Culture 67
4.8 Closing Remarks 68
5 Intensive Culture 70
5.1 Introduction 70
5.2 Stocking Density 70
5.3 Intensive Culture in Earthen Ponds 71
5.3.1 Stocking density 71
5.3.2 Water exchange 72
5.4 Cage Culture 75
5.4.1 Factors affecting cage culture 76
5.4.2 Cage culture in Asia 76
5.4.3 Cage culture in Africa 80
5.4.4 Cage culture in Latin America 81
5.4.5 Cage culture in fertilized ponds and pond effluents 81
5.4.6 Tilapia culture in sea cages 83
Contents vii
5.5 Tank and Raceway Culture 83
5.5.1 Tank size and shape 84
5.5.2 Stocking density and fish size 84
5.5.3 Water exchange and flow rate 84
5.5.4 Raceway culture 85
5.6 Green-water Tank Culture 87
5.7 Tilapia Culture in Recirculating Systems 88
5.8 Effluent Treatment and Management 90
5.8.1 Waste settlement and removal 90
5.8.2 Removal of ammonia and nitrites 90
5.8.3 Water discharge 91
5.9 Tilapia Production in Aquaponic Systems 92
5.10 Closing Remarks 94
6 Nutrition and Feeding 95
6.1 Introduction 95
6.2 Protein Requirements 95
6.3 Amino Acid Requirements 97
6.4 Protein Sources 98
6.4.1 Animal protein sources 98
6.4.2 Plant protein sources 101
6.4.3 Single-cell proteins 103
6.5 Economic Evaluation of Protein Sources 103
6.6 Measurement of Dietary Energy 104
6.7 Dietary Lipid Requirements 104
6.7.1 Essential fatty acid (EFA) requirements 104
6.8 Carbohydrate Utilization 106
6.9 Vitamin Requirements 107
6.10 Mineral Requirements 107
6.11 Feeding Regimes and Practices 110
6.12 Closing Remarks 111
7 Reproduction and Seed Production 112
7.1 Introduction 112
7.2 Modes of Reproduction 112
7.3 Age and Size at First Maturity 113
7.4 Fecundity and Egg Characteristics 114
7.5 Broodstock Management 116
7.5.1 Broodstock selection 116
7.5.2 Stocking density and sex ratio 116
7.5.3 Spawning intervals 117
7.5.4 Broodstock exchange 117
7.6 Broodstock Nutrition 118
7.6.1 Protein requirements 118
7.6.2 Lipid requirements 119
7.6.3 Vitamin and mineral requirements 120
7.6.4 Feeding management 120
7.7 Environmental Factors 121
7.7.1 Dissolved oxygen 121
7.7.2 Temperature 121
7.7.3 Salinity 122
7.7.4 Photoperiod and light intensity 123
7.7.5 Water level and exchange 124
viii Contents
7.8 Production of Monosex Tilapia 125
7.8.1 Manual sexing 125
7.8.2 Hormonal sex reversal 125
7.8.3 Hybridization 131
7.9 Seed Production 132
7.9.1 Hatching systems 132
7.9.2 Egg hatching and yolk-sac absorption 134
7.10 Larval Rearing and Growth 135
7.10.1 Stocking density 135
7.10.2 Food and feeding regimes 136
7.10.3 Photoperiod 137
7.10.4 Water flow and replacement 137
7.11 Closing Remarks 137
8 Stress and Diseases 139
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Stress 139
8.3 Major Diseases 140
8.4 Parasitic Diseases 140
8.4.1 Protozoan diseases 140
8.4.2 Other ciliates 144
8.4.3 Flagellated protozoa 145
8.4.4 Sporozoan diseases 145
8.4.5 Metazoan parasites 146
8.4.6 Parasitic crustaceans 148
8.5 Bacterial Diseases 148
8.5.1 MotileAeromonassepticaemia(MAS) 149
8.5.2 Pseudomonas 150
8.5.3 Vibriosis 151
8.5.4 Streptococcosis 151
8.5.5 Staphylococcosis 152
8.5.6 Mycobacteriosis 153
8.5.7 Edwardsiellosis 153
8.5.8 Columnaris disease 154
8.5.9 Other bacterial diseases 154
8.6 Fungal Diseases 154
8.6.1 Saprolegniasis 154
8.6.2 Branchiomyces 155
8.6.3 Aspergillus 155
8.7 Viral Diseases 155
8.8 Non-infectious Diseases and Disorders 156
8.8.1 Gas bubble disease 156
8.8.2 Nutritional diseases 156
8.8.3 Disorders caused by pollutants 157
8.9 Closing Remarks 158
9 Harvesting, Processing and Economics 160
9.1 Introduction 160
9.2 Harvesting 160
9.3 Handling 162
9.4 Processing 163
9.4.1 Cooling 163
9.4.2 Filleting 163
Contents ix
9.4.3 Rigor mortis 164
9.4.4 Radiation 164
9.5 Marketing and Economics 165
9.5.1 System economics 165
9.5.2 Risk analysis 166
9.6 Domestic Markets 167
9.7 Global Markets 168
9.7.1 The US market 170
9.7.2 Other international markets 174
9.8 Closing Remarks 174
10 The Role of Tilapia Culture in Rural Development 176
10.1 Introduction 176
10.2 Tilapia and Rural Development 178
10.3 Tilapia and Rural Development in Asia 180
10.3.1 The Philippines 180
10.3.2 Thailand 182
10.3.3 Bangladesh 184
10.3.4 Other Asian countries 185
10.4 Tilapia and Rural Development in Africa 185
10.4.1 Tilapia and food security 186
10.4.2 Aquaculture/agriculture integration 188
10.5 Tilapia and Rural Development in Latin America and the Caribbean 189
10.6 Closing Remarks 191
11 Recent Technological Innovations 192
11.1 Introduction 192
11.2 Transgenesis 192
11.2.1 Growth enhancement 193
11.2.2 Cold resistance 194
11.2.3 Producing pharmaceutical products 194
11.2.4 Risk assessment 195
11.3 Genetically Improved Farmed Tilapia (GIFT) 195
11.3.1 Growth and survival 195
11.3.2 Early and late maturation 196
11.3.3 Red body colour 196
11.3.4 Cold resistance 197
11.3.5 GenoMar Supreme Tilapia and GET EXCEL tilapia 198
11.4 Gynogenesis, Androgenesis and Cloning 198
11.5 Triploidy 199
11.6 Production of Genetically Male Nile Tilapia (GMT) 201
11.7 Disease Management 201
11.8 Feed and Feeding 203
11.8.1 Amino acid versus mineral supplementation 203
11.8.2 Phytase supplementation 203
11.8.3 Essential fatty acid (EFA) requirements 204
11.8.4 Feeding regimes 204
11.9 Innovations in Farming Systems 204
11.9.1 Effluent treatment and management 204
11.9.2 Tilapia production in aquaponic systems 205
11.10 Future Prospects 206
x Contents
12 Environmental Impacts 207
12.1 Introduction 207
12.2 Transfers and Introductions 207
12.2.1 Successful introductions 208
12.2.2 Impacts on native aquatic species 208
12.3 Genetic Pollution 209
12.3.1 Hybridization 209
12.3.2 Inbreeding 209
12.3.3 Transgenesis 210
12.4 Farm Effluents and Organic Enrichments 210
12.5 Bioactive Compounds 211
12.6 Hormones 212
12.7 Reducing Environmental Impacts 212
12.7.1 Management of introductions and transfers 212
12.7.2 Effluent management 212
12.7.3 Reducing nutrient loading through green-water tank culture 214
12.7.4 Removing nutrients through aquatic plants 214
12.7.5 Removing nutrients through aquaponic systems 214
12.8 Closing Remarks 215
References 216
General Index 263
Species Index 275