Table Of Content© COPYRIGHT
By
David Hugh Onkst
2011
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
For Heidi,
who was, and is,
always there for me
THE TRIUMPH AND DECLINE OF THE “SQUARES”: GRUMMAN AEROSPACE
ENGINEERS AND PRODUCTION WORKERS IN THE APOLLO ERA, 1957-1973
By
David Hugh Onkst
ABSTRACT
This dissertation is a social, cultural, and economic history of the men and women
of the Grumman Aerospace Company of Bethpage, New York from 1957 through 1973.
These “Grummanites” were the engineers and production workers who designed and
built the Apollo Lunar Modules that allowed humans to land on the Moon. This study
provides unique insights into the impact that the Apollo Program—a large state-initiated
and -supported program—had on those “squares,” people whom many contemporaries
saw as a vital part of mainstream 1960s American society.
By the beginning of the Space Age in 1957, Grumman, Long Island’s single
largest employer, had firmly established a workplace culture of paternalism that
Grummanites largely embraced. Company officials believed strongly in worker retention
and had established a policy of providing every sort of benefit their employees seemingly
desired, including a highly personal and participatory form of management. Many
Grummanites had joined the firm during the early years of the Apollo Program because
they believed in the promise of permanent employment on exciting projects that would
explore the endless frontier of space. But, as many of these mainly self-reliant,
ii
individualistic “squares” would bitterly discover, their dedication to Grumman did little
to secure their livelihoods during the aerospace industry’s early 1970s downsizing; their
individual successes were too largely tied to federal spending and declined when
Americans grew disenchanted with space exploration.
This dissertation demonstrates how the cultural bond of paternalism between
aerospace workers and their company unraveled in the 1960s, and then ended in the early
1970s, because of forces within the company, the economy, and the American state. The
word "triumph" in this study’s title not only applies to Grummanites’ triumphs with the
Lunar Modules, but also their individual socioeconomic victories. The term “decline”
refers to the early 1970s downsizing of more than a third of the Apollo workforce that
had made that program a reality. By relying on a wide-range of archival research
(including corporate records) and extensive surveys and interviews with Grummanites,
this dissertation provides an overview of how Apollo era aerospace workers interacted
with the Cold War American state.
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Finishing a dissertation is a humbling experience. It allows one to reflect back and
realize how many people have touched one’s life and contributed to one’s development
as a scholar and as a human being. Many people and organizations have sustained me as I
completed this milestone, and I’d like to thank them publically. Unfortunately, I will
undoubtedly forget to acknowledge some who deserve mention, but I trust, despite my
oversight, that they will realize how much I appreciated all that they did for me.
First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee, which was carefully
chaired by Peter Kuznick, and included Allan Lichtman and Roger Launius. Each of
them contributed significantly to the development of this work and offered substantial
and thoughtful comments. Although I didn’t always heed all of their advice and counsel,
they helped me mold this monograph into a much better work than it would have been
without their keen eyes and sharp critiques. Early in the process, Michael Kazin played
an important role. Through many thought-provoking conversations and discussions he
inspired me to take a kernel of an idea and turn it into a strong project proposal. And the
late Bob Griffith also provided constant feedback along the way. I only wish that Bob had
lived long enough to see me complete this work, but I know that he guided me along in
other ways as I brought it home.
iv
Many people have welcomed me into the space history community and assisted
me with my career and the development of this dissertation. Shortly after arriving in
Washington, DC in the early 1990s, John Logsdon offered me a research position at the
George Washington University’s Space Policy Institute, which further stimulated my
interest in the field. I also met Dwayne Day there, who has remained a good friend and a
constant source of motivation. John and Dwayne introduced me to a number of people in
the field, including those at NASA and the National Air and Space Museum. Several
individuals in the NASA History Office took an interest in this work from its very
beginning, including Stephen Garber, Jane Odom, Colin Fries, John Hargenrader, Liz
Suchow, Glen Asner, Mark Kahn, and Nadine Andreassen. All of them were extremely
helpful during my tenure as the 1999-2000 AHA Fellow in Aerospace History and have
continued to assist me with research to this day. A little bit further down the street from
NASA, at the National Air and Space Museum, Michael Neufeld, Allan Needell, David
DeVorkin, Martin Collins, Paul Ceruzzi, Valerie Neal, Tom Crouch, and Margaret
Weitekamp gave me an inspiring environment in which to work as a Smithsonian
Predoctoral Fellow. They regularly peppered me with penetrating questions and pushed
me to think differently as I approached my research. They also provided many enjoyable
lunch hours as I grappled with various challenges. Their thoughtful guidance along the
way was greatly appreciated. Additionally, I’d like to recognize the museum’s library
and archive staff for helping me access a wide variety of sources in a timely manner.
Other archivists and librarians who also offered a great deal of assistance include
historian Josh Stoff at the Cradle of Aviation Museum, the staff at the Long Island
v
Studies Institute at Hofstra University, and William Lefevre at the Walter P. Reuther
Library at Wayne State University. I also wish to thank the National Science Foundation
for providing me with an award at a key moment in the research process.
Exploring the history of Grummanites has been an extremely exciting and
satisfying endeavor. It would not have been possible, however, without the assistance of
several key Grummanites. Dick Dunn was the first one to put me in touch with the good
folks at the Northrop Grumman History Center in 1997. There, Larry Feliu, Lynn
McDonald, George Hendry, and the late Roger Seybel, all offered extensive support as I
poured through records of the history of the organization and its people. Ross Fleisig
shared copies of his personal papers with me, and Joe Dudek and Don Imgram introduced
me to the Grumman Retiree Clubs in Bethpage, Long Island, and in the Washington, DC
area. Meeting such a large number of former Grummanites was a meaningful experience,
and their involvement ensured that my project would become a reality. Many of them
filled out surveys and questionnaires and took the time to answer my many questions in
person. I only hope this dissertation facilitates a better understand of their personal stories
and careers.
Throughout this process, there have been many friends and family members who
have stood by my side. Deep gratitude goes to my mother, my father, and my wife’s
family, for their unwavering support. And a special shout out to Uncle Harold, one of my
favorite history conversationalists. I also received generous encouragement from several
friends at the University of Maryland’s Clarice Smith Performing Arts Center during the
home stretch of completing my Ph.D.—many thanks to Fallon and Matt Bachman, Ed
vi
Lewis and Scott Palmer, Scott Eichinger and Jason Lott, and Debby and Victor Vargas.
People I know from the Round House Theatre also provided years of moral support while
I grinded through the dissertation process, including Alice Baer (who painstakingly
entered all of the information from the Grummanite Survey/Questionnaires into an Excel
spreadsheet!), Ira Hillman and Jeremy Barber, Susan McGee, Janet Tuthill, Gary and
Stacy Cardillo, Adrian Ballard, Katha Kissman, Jerry Whiddon, Mal and Dottie Knapp,
and Melissa-Leigh and Carlos Bustamante. In an effort to escape the rigors of study, I
often went orienteering with great friends who not only offered a good distraction from
my work, but who were there for me during good and bad times, including Ted and
Darcy Good, Peggy Dickison and Nadim Ahmed, Greg and Kathleen Lennon, Jan and
Dasa Merka, Tim Good, Valerie Meyer, Tom and Trish Strat, Tom Nolan, Eddie
Bergeron, Brad Whitmore, and all of my other orienteering buddies, especially those
from the Quantico Orienteering Club. Finally, there are several long-time friends and
colleagues who I want to recognize. These include Greg and Christina Viscomi, Dave
Brandt and Heather Lair, Jodie Allison-Bunnell, Lisa Forrest and Herb Golden, Andy
Butrica, Karyn Strickler, Ken Durr, Rich Taylor, Dave Hamdy, Tim and Mickey
Hammett, the late Uday Mohan (my great jazz buddy), and, of course, Bernie Unti (a.k.a.
Howard)—a wonderful comrade-in-arms at AU, and the best neighbor in the world. All
of these people contributed to my sanity and health along the way (more than they will
ever know), and I am tremendously grateful for their friendship.
Last, but most importantly, this dissertation came to fruition because of the unflagging
dedication and support of four incredible souls. First, my sister Chérie has always
vii
supported me. She has helped me with everything ranging from computer problems to
the big questions about life. She also dealt with many of the formatting and styling issues
as well as proof-reading the work. Second, Art Dwight, my personal coach, stepped into
my life three years ago and motivated me to reenergize my drive and passion for this
project. He was there at this project’s most crucial juncture and was absolutely essential
to bringing me to this moment of completion. Third, not enough can be said about my
close friend and colleague Liz Stewart. Liz began the Ph.D. program at American
University with me many years ago, and, although she completed her monograph long
before I did, she tirelessly stayed in “dissertation mode” with me and offered numerous
comments and suggestions on ways I could improve mine. She has read every single
word of this work many times over and provided numerous edits. I cannot thank her
enough for her profound generosity and everything she has done for me as a friend and
colleague. And finally, there is my wife Heidi. She is everything to me. She has been the
best friend and partner I could ever imagine. She has always been there to support me in
absolutely every way. Without her, this dissertation—and my wonderful life so far—
would not have been possible. This work is humbly dedicated to her.
Rockville, MD, July 2011
viii
Description:the field, including those at NASA and the National Air and Space Museum. Kernahan Bays, The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume II,
