The Politics of Adoption: International Perspectives on Law, Policy & Practice

510 Pages·2009·3.28 MB·English

by  Kerry O'Halloran (eds.)

The Politics of Adoption
Second edition
Kerry O’Halloran
The Politics of Adoption
International Perspectives on Law,
Policy & Practice
Second edition
Kerry O’Halloran
Australian Centre of Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies
Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, QLD
Australia
[email protected]
ISBN: 978-1-4020-9151-3 e-ISBN: 978-1-4020-9152-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008937453
© 2009 Springer Science + Business Media B.V.
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Acknowledgements
That The Politics of Adoption made it into a second edition owes a great deal to
Professor Myles McGregor-Lowndes1 and to my other colleagues at the Australian
Centre of Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies. For their support and companionship
I remain extremely grateful.
The many academics, senior managers and others, whose contribution to the first
edition did much to ensure the appearance of the second, have previously been
acknowledged but the debt of gratitude for their efforts continues.2 This edition has
similarly benefited from the kindness of those who took the time and trouble to read
chapters and offer comments. The geographic and cultural spread of their contribu-
tions bears testimony to the international nature of this exercise. The sense of a
shared collegiate endeavour, of time and effort selflessly invested by busy people to
help me get this right, was very encouraging. While not suggesting that they have
in any way ‘signed off’ these chapters, I do acknowledge that their contributions
were enormously helpful. Although it is not possible to render a full account of the
debt owed to so many it would be quite wrong not to acknowledge the particular
contribution of a few.
Ursula Kilkelly3 did much to broaden my outlook with her observations relating
to the chapters on human rights and intercountry adoption. Geoffrey Shannon4
made very helpful comments in respect of the chapter on Ireland, as he had done in
1 Professor and Director, Australian Centre of Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, Queensland
University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
2 Including the following: Deborah Cullen, Secretary of the Legal Group, British Association for
Adoption & Fostering (BAAF), London; Greg Kelly, Senior Lecturer, School of Social Work,
Queens University, Belfast, Northern Ireland; Patrick Parkinson, Professor and Associate Dean,
Faculty of Law, University of Sydney, Australia; Lee Ann Basser, Associate Professor, La Trobe
University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia; Ann Estin, Professor of Law, University of Iowa, US;
Charles Putnam, JD and Co-Director, Justiceworks, University of New Hampshire, US; and
Barbara Woodhouse, David H. Levin Chair in Family Law, University of Florida and John
Triseliotis, Emeritus Professor, University of Edinburgh, both of whom were particularly
supportive.
3 Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University College Cork, Ireland.
4 Chairman, Adoption Board, Shelbourne House, Shelbourne Rd., Ballsbridge, Dublin 4, Ireland.
vii
viii Acknowledgements
the previous edition. Stephen Cretney5 brought his wealth of family law knowledge
to bear on the chapter dealing with the adoption process in England & Wales while
the expertise of Joan Heifetz Hollinger6 on adoption law and practice greatly
assisted completion of the U.S. chapter. For their assistance in improving the
chapter on adoption in Australia I am indebted to Frank Bates,7 who commented
from a hospital bed, and to his colleague Neville Turner.8 I owe much to Khylee
Quince9 for enlightening me in relation to adoption in the context of Indigenous
Peoples. Werner Menski10 patiently corrected my assessment of adoption in an
Islamic context while Satoshi Minamikata11 was assiduous in his struggle to ensure
that I grasped some of the intricacies of the law relating to adoption in Japan. My
thanks also to Anna Singer12 and Laurence Francoz-Terminal13 for their advice on
adoption in Sweden and France respectively.
Despite the best efforts of all the above, there will nevertheless be inaccuracies,
gaps and inconsistencies. These, together with all views expressed are, sadly,
inescapably attributable to the author who apologises unreservedly for lack of due
diligence and for any confusion or offence inadvertently caused.
Thanks, Elizabeth, for once again tolerating this self indulgence.
I am also most grateful to Springer, particularly to Natalie Reiborn, editor, for
the vote of confidence that resulted in this second edition.
5 Emeritus Fellow, All Souls College, University of Oxford, England.
6 Lecturer in Residence, Berkley Law, University of California, USA.
7 Professor of Law, Faculty of Business and Law, University of Newcastle, Australia.
8 Professor of Law, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
9 Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Auckland, New Zealand.
10 Professor of South Asian Laws, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London,
England.
11 Professor of Law, Faculty of Law, Niigata 950-218, Japan.
12 Universitetslektor/Associate Professor, Uppsala Universitet, Faculty of Law, Uppsala, Sweden.
13 Faculty of Law, Université Jean Moulin, Lyon 3, France.
Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1
1 Adoption: Concept, Principles, and Social Construct ............................ 7
1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 7
1.2 Definitional Matters and Related Concepts ........................................ 7
1.2.1 Legal Definition ...................................................................... 8
1.2.2 Concepts .................................................................................. 8
1.3 Social Construct .................................................................................. 10
1.3.1 Adoption and the Inheritance Motive ..................................... 10
1.3.2 Adoption and the Kinship Motive ........................................... 11
1.3.3 Adoption and the Allegiance Motive ...................................... 11
1.3.4 Adoption and the ‘Extra Pair of Hands’ Motive ..................... 12
1.3.5 Adoption and the Welfare Motive ........................................... 12
1.3.6 Adoption and the Childless Couple Motive ............................ 13
1.4 Adoption in England: Historical Context ........................................... 13
1.4.1 The Common Law: Parental Rights and Duties ...................... 14
1.4.2 The Poor Laws ........................................................................ 17
1.4.3 Pressures for Change; End of the 19th Century ...................... 18
1.5 Adoption Legislation: Evolving Principles and Policy ....................... 20
1.5.1 The Adoption Act 1926 .......................................................... 21
1.5.2 The Adoption of Children (Regulation) Act 1939 .................. 22
1.5.3 The Adoption Act 1949 .......................................................... 22
1.5.4 The Children Act 1975 ............................................................ 23
1.5.5 The Adoption Act 1976 .......................................................... 23
1.5.6 The Children Act 1989 ............................................................ 24
1.5.7 Adoption (Intercountry Aspects) Act 1999 ............................. 24
1.5.8 The Adoption and Children Act 2002 ..................................... 24
1.6 Legal Context: Evolution of a Modern Statutory Process .................. 26
1.6.1 The ‘Contract’ ......................................................................... 27
1.6.2 The Parties .............................................................................. 28
1.6.3 The Principles ......................................................................... 33
1.6.4 Contract or Gift Relationship .................................................. 38
1.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 39
ix
x Contents
2 The Changing Face of Adoption in the United Kingdom ....................... 41
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 41
2.2 Modern Adoption Trends in the United Kingdom .............................. 42
2.2.1 From Traditional Model to Modern Variants .......................... 42
2.2.2 Causes of Change .................................................................... 47
2.2.3 Consequences for the Adoption Process ................................. 50
2.3 Family Adoption ................................................................................. 54
2.3.1 Trends in Annual Orders ......................................................... 54
2.3.2 Adoption by Birth Parent and Spouse ..................................... 55
2.3.3 Adoption by Grandparent ....................................................... 56
2.3.4 Other Relative Adoptions ........................................................ 56
2.3.5 The Welfare Principle, the Blood Link
and Family Adoptions ............................................................. 57
2.4 Agency Adoption ................................................................................ 59
2.4.1 Trends in Annual Orders ......................................................... 59
2.4.2 Voluntary Society Adoptions .................................................. 60
2.4.3 Child Care Adoptions ............................................................. 60
2.4.4 The Welfare Principle and Agency Adoptions........................ 66
2.5 Intercountry Adoptions ....................................................................... 66
2.5.1 Trends in Annual Orders ......................................................... 67
2.5.2 Transracial Adoptions ............................................................. 67
2.5.3 The Welfare Principle and Intercountry Adoptions ................ 67
2.6 A Coherent Legal Model for Adoption Practice ................................. 69
2.6.1 Classification of Adoption by Type ........................................ 69
2.6.2 Social Role .............................................................................. 70
2.6.3 Legal Functions ....................................................................... 71
2.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 71
3 The Legal Functions of Adoption ............................................................. 73
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 73
3.2 Regulating the Adoption Process ........................................................ 74
3.2.1 The Adoption Process ............................................................. 74
3.2.2 Role of the Judiciary or Other Determining Body .................. 76
3.2.3 Role of Administrative Agencies ............................................ 76
3.3 Thresholds for Entering the Adoption Process: Eligibility
and Suitability Criteria ...................................................................... 78
3.3.1 The Child ................................................................................ 78
3.3.2 The Birth Parent/s ................................................................... 80
3.3.3 The Adopters ........................................................................... 81
3.4 Pre-placement Counselling ................................................................. 82
3.4.1 The Birth Parent/s ................................................................... 83
3.4.2 The Child ................................................................................ 83
3.4.3 The Adopters ........................................................................... 84
Contents xi
3.5 Placement Rights and Responsibilities ............................................. 84
3.5.1 Placement Decision ............................................................. 84
3.5.2 Placement Supervision ........................................................ 85
3.6 The Hearing and Issue of Order/s ..................................................... 86
3.6.1 Where Consent Is Available ................................................ 86
3.6.2 Where Consent Is Not Available ......................................... 86
3.6.3 The Orders Available .......................................................... 87
3.7 Thresholds for Exiting the Adoption Process ................................... 88
3.7.1 The Welfare Interests of the Child ...................................... 88
3.8 The Outcome of the Adoption Process ............................................. 89
3.8.1 Adoption Orders and Third Party Applicants ..................... 89
3.8.2 Adoption Orders and First Party Applicants ....................... 90
3.8.3 Adoption Orders and Relatives ........................................... 90
3.8.4 Other Orders ........................................................................ 90
3.9 The Effect of an Adoption Order ...................................................... 90
3.9.1 Effect on the Child .............................................................. 91
3.9.2 Effect on the Birth Parent/s ................................................. 91
3.9.3 Effect on the Adopters ........................................................ 92
3.10 Post-adoption Support Services ........................................................ 92
3.10.1 Child Care Adoptions ......................................................... 93
3.11 Information Disclosure, Tracing and Re-unification Services ............. 93
3.11.1 Information Rights .............................................................. 94
3.11.2 Information Disclosure Duties ............................................ 94
3.11.3 Tracing and Re-unification Services ................................... 95
3.12 Adoption Within Family Law ........................................................... 95
3.12.1 Adoption in Its Traditional Family Law Context ................ 96
3.12.2 Adoption in the Context of Modern Public
Law Proceedings ................................................................. 96
3.12.3 Adoption in the Context of Modern Private
Law Proceedings ................................................................. 97
3.12.4 Adoption and Contemporary Family Law Principles ......... 98
3.13 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 99
4 Adoption, the Conventions and the Impact of the European
Court of Human Rights ............................................................................. 101
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 101
4.2 The European Convention on the Adoption of Children 1967 ............. 102
4.2.1 The European Convention on the Adoption
of Children 2008 ................................................................. 102
4.2.2 The Council of Europe ........................................................ 103
4.3 The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 ............ 103
4.3.1 Article 2—The Non-discrimination Principle .................... 104
4.3.2 Article 3—The Best Interests of the Child
Is a Primary Consideration .................................................. 104
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4.3.3 Article 7—The Right of the Child to Know
Their Identity ......................................................................... 104
4.3.4 Article 12—The Right of the Child to Express an
Opinion in Administrative and Judicial
Proceedings ........................................................................... 105
4.3.5 Articles 13 and 14—The Right of the Child
to Self-determination, Dignity, Respect, Non-interference
and the Right to Make Informed Decisions .......................... 105
4.3.6 Article 18—The Primary Responsibility
for the Upbringing of a Child Rests with the Parent/s .......... 106
4.3.7 Article 20—State Duty to Protect Child Without
Family ................................................................................... 106
4.3.8 Article 21—Adoption Shall Ensure That the Best Interests
of the Child Shall Be the Paramount Consideration ............. 107
4.3.9 Article 25—Adoption Placements Must Be Subject
to Periodic Review ................................................................ 107
4.3.10 Article 27—Every Child Is Entitled to a Reasonable
Standard of Living ................................................................. 108
4.3.11 Article 35—Prevention of Trafficking in Children ............... 108
4.3.12 Articles 44 and 45—Every State Is Required to Audit,
Progress and Publish a Report............................................... 108
4.4 The Hague Convention on Protection of Children
and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption 1993 ............. 109
4.5 The European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights
and Fundamental Freedoms 1950 ....................................................... 109
4.5.1 Article 6—Everyone Is Entitled to a Fair and Public
Hearing Within a Reasonable Time by an Independent
and Impartial Tribunal Established by Law .......................... 110
4.5.2 Article 8—The Right to Respect for Private
and Family Life ..................................................................... 113
4.5.3 Article 12—The Right to Marry and Found a Family .......... 125
4.5.4 Article 14—Prohibition of Discrimination ........................... 126
4.6 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 127
5 Intercountry Adoption and the Hague Convention ................................ 129
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 129
5.2 Definitions ........................................................................................... 130
5.2.1 Full and Simple Adoptions.................................................... 130
5.2.2 Intercountry Adoption ........................................................... 130
5.2.3 Overseas Adoption ................................................................ 131
5.3 Background ......................................................................................... 132
5.3.1 Needs ..................................................................................... 133
5.3.2 The Countries ........................................................................ 136
5.4 The Law: Developments Leading to an International Framework ...... 139
5.4.1 The Common Law ................................................................. 140