Table Of ContentÉric DORET
THE NARRATIVE VERBAL SYSTEM
OF OLD AND MIDDLE
EGYPTIAN
Patrick CRAMER Éditeur
13, rue de Chantepoulet
GENEVE
1986
PREFACE
This study is a revised version of a doctoral dissertation (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Chicago,
1981). Above all, I would like to thank the chairman ofmy committee, Dr. Klaus Baer, for his careful read
ing of the successive drafts. His suggestions and criticism were particularly helpful with regard to the trans
lation of the Egyptian texts. The two other members of my committee, Drs. Janet H. Johnson and Edward
F. Wente, have also contributed many valuable comments on and additions to the grammatical analysis.
I would also like to express my deep gratitude to the "Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique"
and its president, Professor Olivier Reverdin, for a research grant which enabled me to stay at the Oriental
Institute of the University of Chicago from 1978 to 1980, in order to write this book. Thanks are also dueto
the "Commission de Recherche de l'Université de Geneve" and to the "Société Académique de Geneve"
for two grants which gave me the opportunity to study at the University of Chicago from 1972 to 1975.
I am also very grateful to Professor Erik Hornung from the University of Base!, and Professor
Wolfgang Schenkel, from the University of Tübingen, who were kind enough to read my manuscript and
suggest severa! corrections.
Finally, I am greatly indebted to Mr. Patrick Cramer, publisher, and to his scientific ad visor, Mr. Enzo
Lucchesi, for having accepted this book in the series "Cahiers d'Orientalisme," to the printer, Mr. Serge
Passini, who handled a very difficult task so carefully, to Mrs. E. Sherman, who checked the English of this
book, and to the "Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique," who assumed the publication's costs.
-,
CONTENTS
PREFACE p. 5
INTRODUCTION p. 13
PART ONE: THE OLD KINGDOM
CHAPTER I: THE S])M.FCONJVGATION PATIERN . pp. 21-55
Forms . p. 21
Functions . p. 22
The Indicative Form of the Sdm.] . p. 24
The Negative Indicative Forms . p. 27
l. Nj S<jm.f · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · p. 27
2. Njwnt . p. 28
3. N(n) wn . p. 28
The Passive Indicative . p. 28
The Circumstantial Form of the Sdm.f . p. 30
The Negation of the Circumstantial Sdm.f . p. 36
1. The Negative form njj sdm.f . p. 36
2. The negation nj-js . p. 37
The Passive of the Circumstantial Form . p. 38
The Subjunctive Sdm.f • p. 39
l. As the Object ofVerbs . p. 39
l. Rdj "to cause to" . p. 39
2. Mrj "to wish, desire" . p. 40
3. Wq "to command" . p. 40
11. As the Object of Prepositions . p. 41
l. (J)r "until" . p. 41
2. N "because" . p. 41
3. M-zp "in a manner of" . p. 41
111. After a Partid e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 41
l. Jr "if" . p. 41
IV. After the Negation Nj-zp p. 42
V. In Clauses of Purpose . p. 42
VI. In Clauses of Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 43
The Negation of the Subjunctive Sdm.f . p. 44
l. Nfr-n . p. 44
2. Tm . p. 46
The Passive of the Subjunctive Form . p. 46
l. As the Object of Verbs . p. 46
l. Rd] "to cause to" . p. 46
2. Wq "to command" . p. 47
3. Db!J, "to ask" p. 47
11. As the Object of a Preposition . p. 48
l. N-mrwt "in order that" . p. 48
8 CONTENTS
III. After the Negation Nj-zp p. 48 •
IV. After the Particle Jwt . p. 48
V. In Clauses of Result . p. 48
The Nominal Form of the Sdm.f . p. 49
l. As the Object ofVerbs . p. 49
l. Wq "to command" . p. 49
2. Mrj "to wish, desire" . p. 50
3. RIJ "to know" . p. 50
11. As the Object of Prepositions . p. 50 •
l. Mr "(just) as" . p. 50
2. N "because" . p. 50
3. (J)r "corresponding to" . p. 51
4. (J)r "so that, in order that" . p. 52
5. Dr "since" . p. 52
6. M-swj "on account of" . p. 52
7. N-c3t-n(j)t "inasmuch as" . p. 52
8. N-mrwt "in order that" . p. 52
9. (J)r-fnw "whenever" . p. 52
'
The Negation of the Nominal Sdm.] . p. 53
l. Nfr-n . p. 53
2. Tm . p. 54
The Passive of the Nominal Form . p. 55
l. As the Object of a Preposition . p. 55
l. N-c3t-n(j)t "inasmuch as" - - - - • • • • • • p. 55
CHAPTER 11: THE STATIVE pp. 57-66
The Sta ti ve of Verbs of Motion . p. 58
The Sta ti ve of Transitive Verbs p. 61
The Stative of Other Intransitive Verbs . p. 66
CHAPTER III: THE FORM Sl)M.N.FIN OLD EGYPTIAN . pp. 67-96
The Nominal Sqm.n.fConstruction with Verbs ofMotion . p. 69
l. In the formula for "Passing from Life to Death" . p. 69
2. In accounts of expeditions . p. 70
3. In self-laudatory passages . p. 74
The Nominal Sqm.n.fConstruction with Intransitive Verbs . p. 75
l. In self-laudatory passages . p. 75
2. In accounts of expeditions . p. 76
The Nominal Sdm.n.f Construction with Transitive Verbs . p. 77
1. In passages pertaining to the establishment of tombs and funerary cults . p. 77
2. In the dedication formulajr.n.fm mnw.f''He made (it) as his monument (memorial,
endowment )" . p. 80
3. The verb jrj in the nominal sdm.n.f iom: with the meaning "to exercise (a function)" . p. 80
4. The verb r(ij in the nominal sdm. n.f form with the meaning "to appoint (somebody to
an office)" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 80
5. In self-laudatory passages . p. 80
6. The nominal sdm. n.f of the verb dd used to introduce an indirect quote . p. 81
7. The nominal sdm. n.f of the verb jrj used to introduce an indirect quote . p. 82
8. The nominal sdm.n.] of the verb rlJ . p. 82
CONTENTS 9
-,
9. In accounts of expeditions . p. 82
10. The nominal sdm. n.f of the verb jrj used to summarize the content of a narra ti ve se-
quence . p. 83
The Negation ofthe Nominal Scjm.n.fConstruction . p. 83
l. Nj sdm.n.f js • • • • • • · · · · · p. 83
2. Nj sdm.n.f . p. 84
•
The Passive ofthe Nominal Scjm.n.fConstruction . p. 85
l. Scjm.(w).f!Scjm.(jj).f . p. 85
l. In the formula for "Passing from Life to Death" . p. 85
• 2. In texts pertaining to the building of tombs . p. 86
3. Rd]. (w ), the passive of the nominal form rdj.n.] . p. 88
11. Scjm.n.t(j).f . p. 88
1. As an initial form . p. 88
2. After a particle . p. 89
The Circumstantial Form of the Sdm.n.] . p. 89
l. As the Complement of an Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 89
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 89
2. Preceded by a particle . p. 90
11. Not in Relation toan Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 91
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 91
2. Preceded by a particle . p. 91
The Negation of the Circumstantial Sdm. n.f . p. 92
The Passive of the Circumstantial Sdm.n.] . p. 93
l. As the Complement of an Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 93
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 93
11. Not in Relation toan Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 93
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 93
2. Preceded by a particle . p. 95
III. In the Construction Noun + Passive S4m. (w).f . p. 96
IV. In the Negative Form Nj Sdm. (w).f . p. 96
CHAPTER IV: COMPOUND VERB-FORMS IN OLD KINGDOM NARRATIVE TEXTS pp. 97-114
Compound Forms with Jw . p. 97
The Form Jw Sdm. n.f Used as a Perfect Tense . p. 98
1. Recitations of virtues . p. 98
2. Performance of rites . p. 102
3. Letters . p. 103
4. Legal texts . p. 105
5. Memoranda . p. 107
The Form Jw S<j,m.n.fUsed as a Simple Past Tense . p. 108
The Compound Verb-Form Wn.f Sdm.] . p. 111
The Compound Verb-Form Wn.f hr Sdm . p. 112
The Compound Verb-Form Wn Sdm.n.] . p. 113
The Verb-Forms Scjm.jn.fand Wn.jn.f hr Sdm . p. 113
TABLES RELATED TO PART ÜNE pp. 115-121
TABLE 1: VERBSINTHEFOURFORMSOFTHES.QM.FCONJUGATIONPATTERN . p. 115
TABLE 2: PAST lNDICATIVE . p. 117
10 C0NTENTS
TABLE 3: PRESENT CIRCUMSTANTIALS . p. 117 t
TABLE 4: PAST CIRCUMSTANTIALS . p. 118
TABLE 5: NOMINAL "EMPHATIC" SI;¡M.N.F F0RM . p. 118
TABLE 6: C0MP0UND VERB-F0RMS . p. 119
TABLE 7: NEGATIVE VERB-F0RMS p. 120
TABLE 8: PASSIVE VERB-F0RMS . p. 121
PART TWO: THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
CHAPTER V: INITIAL FORMS pp. 125-132
Th e I m· tt· a lF orm. s ¡I Jchwe Sd-Smd. n.f f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 125
.n m.n.
Th e N egati· on o f t l 1e 1·m · ti· a 1-F orms ¡í lchwe .nSd -Smd. mn..fn . f · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · p. 128
Th e P assi. ve o f t h e I ni· tr· a l F orms \! Jchwe Sd-smd · ñ · fr .f . p. 129
.n m.ndn
The Syntactic Use ofthe Initial Fori ms / }w S _n1.n.f . p. 130
c!Jc.n Sdm.n.f
CHAPTER VI: THE SQM.N.FNARRATIVE FORM . pp. 133-144
The Morphology ofthe S<Jm.n.fNarrative Constructions . p. 133
The Sdm.n.f oflntransitive Verbs in Non-Initial Main Clauses . p. 135
The Negation ofthe Sdm.n.f us Non-Initial Main Clauses . p. 136
The Passive of the Sdm.n.f in Non-Initial Main Clauses . p. 137
The Syntactic Use of the Non-Initial Sdm.n.f . p. 138
CHAPTER VII: THE STATIVE OF VERBS OF MOTION AND OF OTHER INTRANSI-
TIVE VERBS . pp. 145-150
Initial Forms p. 145
l. With Pronominal Subject . p. 146
1. Followed by the stative of another verb of motion . p. 146
2. Followed by an initial form of a transitive verb . p. 146
3. Followed by the nominal "emphatic" form of a verb of motion . p. 146
11. With Nominal Subject . p. 146
Non-Initial Forms . p. 147
•
CHAPTER VIII: NOMINAL AND CIRCUMSTANTIAL FORMS OF THE SI)M.N.F
CONSTRUCTION IN FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD NARRATIVE pp. 151-171
The Nominal S<Jm.n.fConstruction with Verbs of ~otion . p. 152
1. In the formula for "Passing from Life to Death" . p. 152
2. In accounts of expeditions . p. 154
The Nominal Sdm.n.f Construction with Other Intransitive Verbs . p. 155
l. In self-laudatory passages . p. 155
2. The nominal sdm. n.f íorm of the verb hpr used to summarize the content of a narra ti ve
sequen ce . p. 157
The Nominal S<Jm.n.fConstruction with Transitive Verbs . p. 158 1
1. In texts pertaining to the building of a tomb and the acquisition of funerary equipment p. 158
l
2. In the dedication formula jr. n.f m mnw.f "He made (it) as his monument ( endow-
ment, memorial )" . p. 159
3. The verb jrj in the nominal sdm.n.f iottu with the meaning "to exercise (a function)" p. 160
4. In self-laudatory passages . p. 160
5. In the account of a mission oran expedition . p. 164
CONTENTS 11
6. The nominal sdm.n.f form of the verb jrj used to summarize the content of a narrative
sequen ce . p. 165
The Negation of the Nominal Sdm.n.] Construction . p. 166
The Passive ofthe Nominal St;Jm.n.fConstruction . p. 167
l. Sdm.iwj.] . p. 167
11. Sdm.n.tiwi.] • .. • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · p. 167
l. After the preposition r "until"_ . p. 167
The Circumstantial Sdm. n.f . p. 167
l. As the Complement of an Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 168
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 168
11. Not in Relation toan Initial Nominal "Emphatic" Form . p. 169
l. Not preceded by a particle . p. 169
2. Preceded by a particle . p. 170
The Passive of the Circumstantial Sdm.n.f . p. 171
CHAPTER IX: THE INFINITIVE pp. 173-174
TABLES RELATED TO PART Two . pp. 175-180
TABLE 9: INITIALINDICATIVE . p. 175
TABLE 10: NON-INITIAL INDICATIVE . p. 176
TABLE 11: NOMINALFORMSOFTHE VERB . p. 177
TABLE 12: PRESENT ClRCUMSTANTIALS . p. 178
TABLE 13: PAST ClRCUMSTANTIALS . p. 179
TABLE 14: INFINITIVE . p. 180
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . pp. 181-187
INDEXES . pp. 189-215
l. lndex of Citations . p. 189
11. Index of Grammatical Forms and Terms . p. 204
BIBLIOGRAPHY pp. 217-239
INTRODUCTION1
F. HINTZE, in his work on the grammar of Late Egyptian stories, was the first to show that the distinction
between discourse (direct and indirect) and narrative is no less important in Egyptian than in other lan
guages, i.e., that the two differ grammatically. According to Hintze,2 the narrative text (Erziihlung) offers
a description free of affective coloring,3 while texts of discourse (Rede) express the subjective reaction of
the speaker. 4
Hintze does not deal with the problem of person, but ali the texts he classifies as Reden are in the first
or second person, while those considered as Erziihlungen are in the third. E. Benveniste,5 on the other
hand, analyzing the texts in terms of general linguistics, uses variation in personas the basis for his distinc
tion between discourse (discours) and historical narrative (récit historique).6 Whereas his historical narra
tive makes use of the third person only, without reference to a narrator, his discourse employs ali three per
sons and presupposes the presence of a speaker (speaking in the first person) anda hearer (referred to in
the second person). He uses the simple term "narrative"? for all types of narration, whether in the discours
or in the récit historique. According to Benveniste, then, narrative sequences can occur in both discours,
using the first and second, and-in rare cases-the third person, and in récit historique, using only the third
person. Récit historique can even be considered a subset of discours, with restrictions put on the use of
persons.8
It is clear from this that Hintze's Erziihlung does not tally with Benveniste's "narrative," since ali the
passages which he classifies as "Erziihlungen" are in the third person. Rather, the notion of Erziihlung pro
posed by Hintze is equivalent to Benveniste's récit historique. Furthermore, Hintze's distinction is unable
to account for those passages of the Late Egyptian stories in which a narrative sequence makes use of the
first two persons, and he is forced to characterize them under yet a third heading, "report" (Bericht).9
H.J. Polotsky follows Hintze's distinction between Rede and Erziihlung. 10 Although he recognizes the
fact that narrative can occur within discourse, 11 he encounters the same kind of difficulty as Hintze in classi
fying those narrative passages that employ the first two persons. 12
1. Author and year of publication in the footnotes refer to the corresponding entry in the bibliography.
2. HiNTZE, 1950-1952.
3. See HINTZE, 1950-1952, pt. 1, p. 3: "Die 'Erzahlung' ist im allgemeinen einfache Mitteilung eines Geschehnisses, in der die
objektiven affektfreien Elemente überwiegen."
4. See H!NTZE, 1950-1952, pt. 2, p. 161: "Die Rede [ist] als mehr subjektive Aussage weitgehend affektbetont oder sie steht im
Dienste der Aufforderung, des Wunsches oder der Frage."
5. BENVENISTE, 1959 (= 1966, vol. 1, pp. 237-250); BANFIELD, 1973; ZWICKY, 1974; GENETTE, 1966; KURODA, 1975; HANNIG,
1982, pp. 38-40.
6. See BENVENISTE, 1959, pp. 70-74 (= 1966, vol. 1, pp. 238-243).
7. BENVENISTE, 1959, p. 74, n. 2 (= 1966, vol. 1, p. 242, n. 2); HANNIG, 1982, pp. 38-40.
8. GENETTE, 1966, p. 162; KURODA, 1975, pp. 280; 292.
9. H!NTZE, 1950-1952, pt. 1, p. 4 and n. l.
10. POLOTSKY, 1965, par. 35.
11. POLOTSKY, 1965, n. 48: "It is possible to narrate about oneself in verb-forms appropriate to 'Erziihlung' ... in the language
of 'Rede'." In the same note, Polotsky points out that when this kind of passage speaks about a third person, a reference to the nar
rator, who speaks in the first person, must be present in the context.
12. See, e.g., PoLOTSKY, 1965, par. 40, in which Polotsky, quoting Urk. l, pp. 145-147, definesjw sdm.n.j as a narrative form
(here used in discourse), whereas the same form is described in par. 35 as having "its proper place in direct speech as distinct from
narrative." See also par. 34, about the same formjw sdm.n.j: "It is also said to be a common, or even the commonest, narrative form.
Where it <loes indeed resemble narrative form, it will be found to be in the first person singular orto have the first person singular for
its complement; and the texts where it is so used will turn out to be autobiographical inscriptions. Now autobiographical inscriptions
are to be classed as direct speeches rather than as narrative texts." The same thing is found in GILULA, 1970, p. 207: "Moreover, as a
result of Polotsky's 'Egyptian Tenses', one must differentiate between verbal constructions introduced by iw and those not introduced
by iw [ ... ],in which the function of iw is to enable the circumstantial verb-forms to serve as indicative-predicative forms (at least at the
beginning of direct speech)." See also POLOTSKY, 1973, p. 140 ( about H!NTZE, 1950-1952) ; "Son apport principal est la mise en lumiere
de la distinction fondamentale entre Rede[= le discours (et le dialogue)] et Erziihlung (la narration)." Polotsky adds in a footnote
(ibid., n. 2): "Les termes francais sont ceux employés par BENVENISTE, BSL 46 (1950), pp. 31, 33 = Problémes de linguistique générale,
14 INTRODUCTION
In this work, we will employ the term "narrative" in the manner of Benveniste. Narrative sequences,
therefore, may occur indirectas well as indirect discourse 13-using mainly the first and second, but also the
third person-and may also occur in historical narrative using only the third person.
This study deals with the narrative verbal system of Old and Middle Egyptian inscriptions. In these in
scriptions, which are mainly autobiographical, the first and second persons refer to the narrator-the first
in direct discourse, the second in indirect discourse. The third person is used in statements about someone
other than the narrator, 14 both in direct and indirect discourse. 15
Although narrative sequences in ( auto )biographical texts dating from the Old and Middle Kingdom
were generally written in the first person, 16 i.e., discourse, examples are attested in the third person, 17 and
even once in the second person. 18 Only with the advent of the New Kingdom royal inscriptions do narrative
sequences in the third person, i .e., historical narrative, become more frequent.
While narrative texts relate a succession of events set in the past, texts in non-narrative discourse
("nicht-erzdhlende Rede") 19 describe past events from the point of view of the present. They can also de
scribe events set in present or future time. 20
In order to describe past events from the present point of view, texts in non-narrative discourse must
use the perfect tense.21 The perfect tense denotes the effect22 and duration in the present of events set in the
past (present perfect), or the effect and duration, in the past, of anterior events (past perfect).
A last word should be said about the nature ofthe corpus. In the history ofthe Egyptian language, Old
and Middle Egyptian forma unity23 distinct from that formed by Late Egyptian, Demotic and Coptic. 24 The
development of the first group into the second marks a change in grammatical systems. The grammatical
vol. 1 (1966), pp. 162, 165." In his later study (1959) referred to above (see n. 5), Benveniste established, however, the distinction be
tween discours and récit historique, which forms the basis for our own analysis. Following this distinction, the term "narrative" is no
longer in opposition to the term "discourse." Rather, narrative can occur in the first or second person ( within discourse), or in the third
person (as a historical narrative). H.S. and A. Smith, in their study on the Kamose texts (see H.S. SMJTH and A. SMITH, 1976) seem
to use the term "narrative" along the same lines, see, e.g., p. 51: "Toe narrative of the campaign which begins in CT[= Carnavon Tab
let] 1, 10, however, is given in the first person and purports to be Kamose's own account of the campaígn." This narrative is called
elsewhere "autobiographical narrative" (see SMJTH and SMITH, 1976, pp. 50-53).
13. Goedicke, wrongly assuming that indirect discourse does not make use of narrative verb-forms, misinterpreted two passages
from the inscription of lfr-l]w(j).f (Urk. l, p. 128, 11. 10-13 and 14-15, which both have l"" as a verb-form): "The assumption of a
sdm.n.] form seems improper on account of the fact that a narrative tense cannot be involved and it is therefore necessary to consider
itas sdm.]. From the geminating spelling it seems correct to consider itas an imperfective sdm.], whereby the use of this form is jus
tified bythe inherent meaningofthe passage." (See GOEDICKE, 1955 a, p. 102.) Both passages use, in fact, sdm.n.f es anarrative verb
form after the introductory particle wnt (NIMS, 1957, p. 137) and notan imperfective sdm.], as posited by Goedicke. On the particle
wnt, see n. 263 on p. 34 below.
14. See n. 11 on p. Ü above.
15. For examples in indirect discourse, see Urk. 1, p. 42, l. 11; p. 104, 11. 12-13, and GoEDICKE, 1955 a, pp. 100-101, examples
G 1 and2.
16. VAN DE WALLE, 1975, col. 816; ÜTIO, 1970, p. 180. On autobiographies in Ancient Egypt, see also MISCH, 1949, pp. 23-33;
E. SCHOTT, 1977, pp. 453-461; ASSMANN, 1983, pp. 71-93.
17. See the inscriptions of Mtn, in Urk. l, pp. 1-7 (and GoEDICKE, 1966 a; GODECKEN, 1976); Spss-Pth . in Urk. l, pp. 51-53;
N(j)-cnlJ-SIJmt, in Urk. 1, pp. 38-40, see DüRET, 1982, pp. 25-26 and n. 24; E. SCHoTT, 1977, pp. 457-458. See also VERNUS, 1978,
p. 117, n. 7, and the references given in the preceding note. ·
18. Siut 4, see BRUNNER, 1937, p. 30, n. 1 and p. 35; see also VAN DE WALLE, 1975, col. 816.
p.
19. On the term "Nicht-erziihlende Rede" (non-narrative discourse), see WEINRICH, 1971, 36.
20. See WEINRICH, 1971, pp. 28-54, who uses the two German terms "Erzahlte Welt" and "Besprochene Welt," as well as
HANNIG, 1982, pp. 38-40.
21. WEINRICH, 1971, p. 69, uses the term "Rückschau-Tempus" to describe the perfect tense. On the distinction between the
notions of "perfect" (a verb-form which describes the effect and duration of anterior events), and "perfective" (a verb-form which
presents the events as having been achieved), see COMRIE, 1976, pp. 11-13.
22. One might prefer here the term result, and describe the perfectas a resultative, see AssMANN, 1974, pp. 64-65; COMRIE,
1976, pp. 56-58; ASSMANN, 1983, p. 79 and n. 18 (with bibliography).
23. EDEL, 1955-1964, par. 16-20; STRICKER, 1944, pp. 14-15.
24. It is also possible that Old and Middle Egyptian reflect a northern dialect while the later stages of the language reflect a
southern one. In tracing a relation between Old and Late Egyptian, EDGERTON (1951) limited his sample of Old Egyptian to the
Pyramid Texts. He remarked that the prothetic "j" in the imperative and participles of biconsonantal verbs is a usage common to both
Pyramid Texts and Late Egyptian, and both feature nominal sentences made up of two juxtaposed nouns without copula (EDEL,
1955-1964, par. 947). He failed to note, however, that the last two grammatical consonances occur only between Pyramid Texts and
Late Egyptian and not between standard (Urk. 1) Memphite Old Egyptian and Late Egyptian. EDEL (1955-1964, par. 21; 214; see
also FECHT, 1960, par. 153, and n. 257; n. 613; ÜSING, 1976 a, p. 891), noticed that the form attested in Urk. l for the word "lord"
INTRODUCTION 15
structure of classical, i.e., Old and Middle Egyptian, is mainly synthetic, while the grammar of Late Egyp
tian, Demotic and Coptic is basically analytic.25
The Ancient Egyptians themselves felt the necessity of translating texts from Middle Egyptian into
Late Egyptian26 (Urkunden VI27 and Ani28 and from Middle Egyptian into Demotic (Pap. Carlsberg 1),29
),
but never texts from Old into Middle Egyptian. This fact attests to the unity of language between Old and
Middle Egyptian. In view of that unity, this study considers biographical texts written in Old as well as in
Middle Egyptian.
We have limited our corpus of Middle Egyptian texts to those which date from the First lntermediate
Period (up until the reign of Nb-tswjj-R" Mntw-htp, (w)). Texts from this period seem to exhibit best the
characteristics of the Middle Egyptian language. lt would appear that the written language of this period
was much closer to contemporary spoken Egyptian than was the language of Twelfth Dynasty inscrip
tions, far those inscriptions employed a distinctly archaizing literary idiom.
30
The bulk of the evidence occurs in the verbal and demonstrative pronoun systems. In the Middle Egyp
tian verbal system of narrative texts from the First Intermediate Period, the form jw sdm.n.f of transitive
verbs is used as a past indicative in initial position,31 i.e., at the beginning of a sentence, while in non-initial
position sdm. n.f is found. 32 Ea ch of these farms appears in both first and third person. However, in certain
narra ti ve texts from the Twelfth Dynasty, the narra ti ve sdm.] form is used far the third person past indica
tive of transitive verbs, as it is in texts dating to the Old Kingdom.33 Furthermore, Twelfth Dynasty use of
the stative of transitive verbs with the first person in certain cases parallels the Old Kingdom independent
use of the forrn, 34 Finally, the first person of verbs of motion in the stative used independently appears in
certain narrative Twelfth Dynasty texts. This independent use35 is common in Old Kingdom texts, where
First Intermediate Period Middle Egyptian shows jw.j pr.kw36 (at least in initial position).
The use of the demonstrative pronoun system in Twelfth Dynasty narrative inscriptions is also paral
leled in Old Kingdom texts. 37 In the Twelfth Dynasty texts, we find the demonstrative pronoun series pn,
(01'-1- nbw, Urk. l, p. 180, l. 3) is related to the bohairic NHE, whose long vowel points toan open syllable (something like
"néb w, to use Edel's transcription). This would be the form attested in the northem dialect, whereas the southem dialect shows a
short vowel: NGn, A2 (Mani, Ps. 201, 21), related to nb. For further discussion, see also EDEL, 1955-1964, par. 22; STRICKER,
1944, passim; VERGOTE, 1961, pp. 246-249; POSENER-KRIÉGER, 1975, p. 216; J0HNS0N, 1976 a, pp. 298-302; ID., 1976 b, pp. 105-132,
which gives references to recent studies on Coptic dialects (see JOHNSON, 1976 b, p. 106, n. 5; to this bibliography, add now KASSER,
1980-1981); ]UNGE, 1981 b; ID., 1982; ID, 1985.
25. See HINTZE, 1947, pp. 85-108; SCHENKEL, 1966 b; J. ALLEN, 1982. A synthetic language expresses grammatical relationships
by means of inflections, whereas an analytical one uses auxiliary words (i.e., helping verbs and prepositions) see, e.g., the difference
between the Latin "Venit Romam" (synthetic) and the French "Il est venu ii Rome" (analytical); see PEI, 1966, s. v. lt goes without say
ing that languages of the first group can make use of analytical forms (e.g., in Middle Egyptian,jw/Cl}c.n sdm.n], or Noun + hrlrlm +
Infinitive ), justas languages of the second group can make use of synthetic forms (e.g., in Coptic, the infinitive, the qualitative and
the conjunctive.
26. See GRAP0W and WESTENDORF, 1970, p. 220.
27. S. SCH0TT, 1929, p. 2; ID., 1954, p. 237 (index, s. v.); VERNUS, 1975, p. 64, n. 4.
28. ERMAN, 1894 b; SUYS, 1935, pp. VII and l; VOL'l'EN, 1937, p. 5.
29. LANGE and NEUGEBAUER, 1940, pp. 11-12; PARKER, 1955, pp. 51-55.
30. GARDINER, 1957 a, par. 4.
31. On the use on this term, see P0LOTSKY, 1965, pp. 1-2; 7-8; 10; 15-17; 24; G!LULA, 1970, p. 207; POLOTSKY, 1976, par. 3.1.2
(end); CERNY and GR0LL, 1978, pp. 168-169; GROLL, 1978, pp. 172-174; CALLENDER, 1983 b.
32. See Part II of this book, Chapters VI and VII.
33. GARDINER, 1957 a, par. 450, l. For an example, see BM 828 (BM stelae, vol. 2, pi. 21), the narrative portion ofwhich begins
with the typical Old Egyptian formulajnk jdw(?) f(3)z-m<Jh (1.5) "I was a youth who tied on the girdle" (see LEFEBVRE, 1939 a, p. 218)
and in which the indicative sdm.] is used as a narrative form throughout. On the OE formulajnk jdw (or IJwnw) f(3)z-m<JIJ "1 was a
youth who tied on the girdle ," an expression for attaining manhood (analagous to the 'toga virilis'), see PIEHL, 1898, p. 134; STAEHE
LIN, 1966, pp. 23-30; BROVARSKI, 1975-1976, p. 3; for another translation ("fillet-wearing youth"), see GUNN, 1939, pp. 218-219;
GRDSELOFF, 1943 b, pp. 118-120; EDEL, 1944, par. 47; J. JANSSEN, 1946, pt. 2, p. 160; G0EDICKE, 1967 a, pp. 68-69; FISCHER, 1976 a,
p. 41, n. 8.
34. GARDINER, 1957 a, par. 312, l.
35. ÜARDINER, 1957 a, par. 312, 3.
36. See Part II ofthis book , chapter VII.
37. Old Egyptian also uses the seriespw, tw, nwwhich became obsolete ata later time, except in religious texts, see EDEL, 1955-
1964, par 181-193; GARDINER, 1957 a, par. 112.
