The life cycle of the archaic Greek warrior and hero. The interplay of myth and genre in imagery

18 Pages·2011·0.84 MB·English

The life cycle of the archaic Greek warrior and hero.
The interplay of myth and genre in imagery
Nanna Marinatos
Introduction. Genre, narrative, motif and ideology
THE DISTINCTION between genre and narrative is not as sharp as one might think
since both depend upon tradition shaped by cultural experience. The relationship
of visual art and the normative background which gives shape to artistic tradition
is an important topic which can take us far afield. The discussion in this paper will
have to limit itself to one theme: the life cycle of the male warrior or hero.
The investigation will deal primarily with imagery on bronze Peloponnesian
shields. The latter are particularly relevant to our topic because they are the carri
ers of male-oriented warrior ideology. Many of these shields were found in Olym
pia, others in Argos and Perachora, and it is agreed that they are products of an
Argive school. Indeed Argos seems to be the source of the round shield. 1 It is even
arguable that the epic cycle about Troy had an Argive origin. 2 At any rate, it is a fact
that epic scenes on Corinthian3 and Argive pottery4 and shields5 are extensive.
Let us now turn to the decoration of the shields and some technical matters as
sociated with the representation. Each shield was adorned on the outside with an
episema, a device which the enemy would see. But also the inner bronze handle
straps were decorated; they were divided into panels, and each panel contained a
scene. These representations were meant to be seen by the carrier of the shield
Kunze 1950:215ff.
2 The epic is Argo-centric: Kunze 1950:216; Burkert 1998. The designation of the Greeks as
Argives and Achaeans is not without significance, nor is the fact that Agamemnon and
Diomedes, both Peloponnesian kings, are prominent leaders in the poem. Finally Athena and
Hera, two patron goddesses of Argos are most prominent in the battles, whereas Poseidon is the
patron god of Peloponnesian Helike and Aegai.
3 Amyx 1988. Especially interesting is the section on vases where the names of the heroes are
inscribed and which give us an insight in the current epic tradition.
4 Recent discussion with bibliography in Snodgrass 1998.
5 Kunze 1950 and Bol1989.
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154 N ANNO MARINATOS
since they were on the inside. One wonders therefore if they had a didactic pur
pose. Let us note that the scenes were generated by matrices6 and, as Kunze has
shown, the matrix determined the combination of visual motifs. 7 It is possible that
the matrix maker had a plan in mind when he chose from the pool of representa
tions the six or seven that were to be included in each shield. We shall return to
this issue; for the moment let us note that each panel was an autonomous unit, a
'motif.'
Did the panels have an inner coherence of theme? The issue of pictorial pro
grammes (Bildprogramme) has been addressed by both E. Kunze and P. Bol.8 Nei
ther of the two has found the rationale which determined the selection of scenes.
These scholars could detect no connecting link between the panels.
If one were to ask a different question, however, namely whether there was an
ideology which connected the motifs, then a different answer emerges. Each scene
could be viewed as part of a meaningful conceptual and ideological frame, each
myth constituting a paradigm. But what could this ideological web consist of?
Each culture emphasises that which is important to its survival. A warrior so
ciety will place value on the training of the young males with the purpose of turn
ing out excellent warriors. Their career and identity are closely linked. They will be
taught to value honour, accomplishment, an honourable death and funeral. Myths
express the same values in a paradigmatic way. Thus genre and myth meet at an
axis defined by social tradition: myth and genre express the same values. Thus,
genre imagery can easily be turned into a specific story by the addition of a single
inscription which specifies the name of the hero.
To return to the combination of motifs on bronze shields: if normative rather
than narrative considerations determine the choice of motifs, the same scene could
be used with or without minor alterations to designate many different characters
and the message would remain the same.
Genre and myth on visual motifs: some examples
A typical scene is that of a warrior, his sword drawn and erect, moving to the left,
leading a woman whom he holds by the wrist. This motif is usually identified as
the abduction of Helen or the reclaiming of Helen by Menelaus9 (Fig. 1). Yet it
could also refer to the capture of Chryseis, the abduction of Korone by Theseus or
any other abducted woman or bride. For this reason, the generic designation
6 Few matrices are known, see Treister 1995:84ff.
7 Kunze 1950:215,217.
8 Kunze 1950:49ff., Boll989:39.
9 Kunze 1950:163-67, form xi d; Schefold 1966: pl. 57 b; Bol1989:74.
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE ARCHAIC HERO 155
Fig.l Fig.2
'Brautraub' seems more apt to me.10 It addresses a cultural issue important to the
Greeks of the Archaic age: abduction and accumulation of women contributes to
the warrior's honor and shows that he is sexually active, having reached mature
manhood.
Let us now change the meaning of this scene by slightly manipulating the ges
tures although we employ the same matrix-generated visual formula. If the wom
an grabs the man's wrist instead of vice versa (Fig. 2), the semeiology changes
entirely. The woman tries to hold back the departing warrior." The 'domesticity'
of the woman is emphasised. She is a wife, rather than a bride to be. This is indi
cated by the spindle that she holds, the latter being a mark of wifely status. The
message here is that the warrior must and will go to war and perform his duty de
spite the protestations of his wife. In narrative terms the couple may be An
dromache and Hector but it could be any married couple. The normative value
expresses the warrior's primary and most urgent duty which is defence of his
country and the woman's reluctance to let him go because of her helplessness in
the eventuality of her husband's death. The slight change in gestures is thus signif
icant, a fact not always recognised by scholars who conflate the two formulas of
Figs. 1 and 2.
10 Kunze 1950:160; Bol 1989:143, pl. 52.
11 Kunze 1950:166, (pl. 20, form v b) notices the variation of gesture but does not revise the identi
fication of characters as Menelaus and Helen. Similarly Boll989:139, (form vii b) uses the same
designation 'Brautraub' for both types of scenes on Figs. 2 and 3.
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Fig. 3a Fig. 3b
We can indulge in further experimentation with scenes of male-female inter
action. In the scene of the departure of Amphiaraus, we know that the wife does
not try to hold her husband back.12 On the contrary, she has betrayed him. The
artist expresses this visually by physically detaching the wife from the husband and
by eliminating any gestures or contact between them.
Another formula on shield band decoration consists of a couple facing each
other, the man grabbing the woman's wrist.13 The couple may be Hera and Zeus,
Helen and Menelaus (Figs. 3 a and b), Hector and Andromache, or any other fa
mous couple. The bond is sexual, emphasised by the presence of the lizard which
(being a magical determinative) arguably stresses the poignancy of the moment.14
Sexual union and marriage is an important stage in a warrior's career because it
embodies the transition into the category 'mature man' as opposed to 'young war
rior.'
Thus we have isolated three motifs dealing with gender roles, all of which help
place the warrior's life in perspective. We have seen that the particulars of the story
are subsumed under the normative expression of the 'motif:
12 Boardman 1992:167-70.
13 Schefold 1966:85, fig. 32; Bol1989:48-49, fig. 9.
14 The lizard is a bad omen ('Unheil') according to Bol 1989:74. On the other hand, Grabow
1998:86 n. 28, allows for a greater variety of interpretations including regeneration because liz
ards grow tails back. This hypothesis is strengthened by the parallel symbolism in Egyptian amu
lets: Andrews 1994:32, figs. 28, 66. In Egyptian imagery the lizard is a magical sign with positive
connotations.
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE ARCHAIC HERO 157
The life cycle of the hero
We now come to the central thesis of this paper: each scene on the shield bands
focuses on a stage in the life cycle and career of the warrior, mythical hero, even a
god. The stages range from the hero's adolescence to his death and are punctuated
by accomplishments of various types: glory in battle, defeat of monsters or wild
animals, the abduction of women, subjugation of the enemy or wild women, such
as Amazons. There is also sexual union and marriage not because the latter are 'ac
complishments' but because they signify transition into a new stage.
It should be noted, however, that the arrangement of the panels was not dictat
ed by a chronological sequence of events as they might occur in a story; rather, they
were chosen because of their relevance to the warrior's identity.
As an experiment, I have created an artificial shield-strap consisting of scenes
taken from genuine shields. This artificial composition has a meaningful narrative
sequence which reflects the hero's career and life. We shall see that this artificial
strap has many common points with the Iliad.
Panel a. The rider (Fig. 4 a)
How did Greeks divide age groups? The early stages of the life of a Spartan citizen
was in some ways identified with the agoge and death in battle was the end. 15 The
agoge starts at 7 and the (pre)military training takes place between 14 and 17. The
formal age grades have names: mikizomenos, propais, pais, mellereiren, eiren. From
the age of 20 there was formal membership in the army involving armour. The age
of marriage was about 30. The agoge thus presupposed four distinct groups: the
ephebe pre-warrior (sexually he is passive eromenos); the unmarried warrior; the
married warrior; the old man (geron).
One series of pictorial motifs consists of young unbearded ephebe riders who
have no armour, not being full warriors as yet.16 One shield panel shows an un
bearded youth trying to tame two huge horses simultaneously by holding both
their reigns.17 Alternatively, a youth on horseback accompanies the armed warrior
(Fig. 5 ).18 In this last instance we have a partnership of the ephebe with the full
warrior. The ephebe is being trained for battle.
In Archaic Greek art, the ephebe is visually represented as a rider on horseback.
He is naked or wears a chitoniskos; he has long hair (as opposed to the short hair in
5th cent. vases) and is beardless. In the Iliad, the ephebe is represented by Poly
dorus, and Lykaon, to the unfortunate fate of whom we shall return further on. In
15 The most reliable source is Xen. Lac. and Plut. Lye. Overview in Pettersson 1992:78-90.
16 Lissarague 1990:205-210,236,238. For the imagery of adolescents: Schnapp 1985:101-125.
17 Kunze 1950:Beilage 13.
18 Kunze 1950:pl. 46, form xviii a.
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a
b
c
d
e
f
h
Fig. 4
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE ARCHAIC HERO 159
the imagery of the shields, the rider is sometimes Bellerophon associated with the
monster Chimaera; other times there is no monster and the rider stands for youths
in general.19 It is important to note that the ephebe on horseback is never active as
a fighter (Figs. 4 a; 5); even Bellerophon is not engaged in battle with Chimaera;
the latter is there only as a potential opponent isolated in a panel below the rider,
perhaps alluding to his future glory. In the epic tradition, the ephebe (Polydorus,
Lykaon or Troilus) is a victim and his main role in the plot is to be killed by the
mature warrior Achilles. Concepts of hierarchy and dominance within the agoge
may have given rise to the myths where the adolescent plays a passive role; for
myths are encoded cultural communication systems. The ephebe thus symbolises
the aspiration to warrior status, an aspiration as yet unfulfilled which carries dan
gers inherent in the vulnerability of the youth. When the ephebe rises to the occa
sion by killing a monster, as does Bellerophon on the shield panels, the time has
come for him to make the transition into adulthood.
Panel b. Marriage (Fig. 4 b)
As mentioned above, marriage is an important transition into manhood in the
male's career. It signifies dominance in sexuality (as opposed to the passive role of
the eromenos), as well as responsibility. That marriage was perceived as an impor
tant transition in maturation rites can be shown by the fact that scenes of couples
appear on grave monuments in the 7th cent., as at Prinias.20 As well, marriage im
agery features on funerary urns of the Orientalizing period, as for example on one
from Arkades, Crete, where a man touches a woman's cheek and lower abdomenY
We have seen above that when a couple faces one another (Fig. 3) the significance
is sexual union or marriage. The variant scheme, 'abduction' (Fig. 1) reflects a sim
ilar concept; here the emphasis is on the active role of the warrior. The abducted
woman may become a wife (as Andromache) or may remain a mistress (as Ari
adne, Kassandra, Chryseis, Briseis).22 Finally, the scheme 'warrior's departure'
(Fig. 2) alludes to the warrior's responsibility towards his city. Marriage is thus em
blematic of mature status, whether on the stele of a grave or on a shield.
The departing warrior is often but not always linked to the married warrior.
Sometimes he shakes hands with an older man, presumably his father. 23
In Iliad 6 the scene of the departing warrior is represented by Hector. An
dromache tries to hold Hector back in a moving speech which every schoolchild
19 Kunze 1950:pl. 70 ii c; pl. 72, vii a, viii c b; Schefold1966:pls. 22,40 b. Payne 1940.pl. 48. 11.
20 The social significance of the scenes on the grave monuments is argued extensively by Lebessi 1976.
21 Levi 1931:341, fig. 443 d.
22 Stewart 1996:74-89.
23 Kunze 1950:1. 35, form xi b.
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160 NANNO MARINATOS
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
used to know by heart. In some ways, Hector is the warrior par excellence because
he is a defender of country and family rather than an aggressor. He departs for war
with the consciousness that he may not return; nevertheless he has to fulfil his duty
as a warrior and a leader. Compare with Fig. 2.
Panel c. Athletics (Fig. 4 c)
The warrior must also be an athlete.24 We hear much about athletics in Iliad 22, the
Funeral Games of Patroclus. On the shield straps it is boxing that is chosen as the
epitome of athletic competition, possibly because it has a striking analogy to fighting.
In the Odyssey athletics serve to establish Odysseus' identity as a superior man both at
Scherie (Hom. Od. 8: 186ff.) and at Ithaca in the boxing match with the beggar Irus
(Hom. Od.l8:66ff.). Athletic training was of great importance in the agoge. 25
Panel d. Armament (Fig. 4 d)
Serious fighting is signalled by the ritual of putting on armour. On the shield straps
the warrior bends his knee to put on one grieve whereas a helper is handing to him
shield and helmet (Fig. 6).26 The cuirass lies on the ground, the spear on the side.
24 Athletic groups can be divided into classes of ephebes and mature men, i.e. warriors. Note that
the contestants on the shield straps are bearded: Kunzel950:pl. 47, form xviii e; more ambiguous
Kunze 1950:form xlii b.
25 Kennell995.
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THE LIFE CYCLE OF THE ARCHAIC HERO 161
On early 6th cent. vases, the formula is repeated whilst secondary figures may be
added: a wife or the father of the warrior. Sometimes even the patron goddess
Athena or the helper Hermes are presentY
Arming has more significance than meets the eye. It is a moment of choice dur
ing which the warrior has made the decision to fight and possibly to die. In the Il
iad the procedure of putting on the armour is described at length for a good
reason: it leads to glory but it is also a signal of the hero's approaching doom. Thus,
Patroclus' armament marks the beginning of his end (Hom. Il.16.131-137). Sim
ilarly, when Hector puts on the armour of Achilles, which he has stripped from the
body of the dead Patroclus, he is about to experience his last glory.
'When Zeus the Cloud-compeller saw Hector from afar equipping himself
in the arms of divine Achilles he shook his head and said to himself: Unhap
py man! Little knowing how close you are to death .... Well, for the moment
great glory will be yours. But you must pay for it. There will be no home
coming for you from battle ... ' (Hom. Il. 17.194-207 trans. Rieu)
In Achilles' case, death is foretold to the hero by his divine horses after he has put
on his new armour:
'Indeed my dreaded master, we will once more bring you safely home today.
Yet the hour of your death is drawing near (Hom. II. 19:408-409).
The scene of armament is thus more than just an instance of the warrior's prepa
ration for war. It looks forward to glory, but at the same time, it signals death.
Panel e. Fighting (Fig. 4 e)
The major accomplishments of a hero can be divided into two groups: ( 1) defeat
of monster (Fig. 7);28 (2) defeat of opponent in war (Fig. 8). These two categories
are interchangeable, and are chosen according to the literary genre. The monster
(Fig. 7) fits the myth or folktale. The human adversary is appropriate to the epic
hero (Fig. 8). Sometimes the human adversary is an Amazon as in Fig. 8. In this
case, the hero asserts his male dominance over the untamed female.
Artistically, the adversary (be it a monster, an Amazon or a warrior) is depicted
in a similar manner. Broken down with one knee bent, he/she is faltering whereas
the hero is dominant.
Panel f Quarrel
There is an important variation of the fighting scene which I have not included in
my artificial shield strap. Two warriors face each other, their shields are clashing
26 Kunze 1950:form xi c.
27 Lissarrague 1985:63, figs. 63-64.
28 Kunze 1950:form iii, d, e; iv, e.
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162 NANNO MARINATOS
Fig. 7 Fig. 8
and their swords are drawn. 29 In their midst a bearded man raises his hand in me
diation. Behind each warrior are two men trying to hold back their comrade (Fig.
9). Thus the fight is illegitimate, it must refer to a quarrel between members of the
same party. The names are Lycurgus and Amphiaraus, the man in the centre being
Adrastus. This episode must derive from the The Seven Against Thebes cycle, per
haps a lost literary version as Schefold suggests. 30 Lycurgus was king of Nemea, one
of the first places where the Seven stopped and where baby Opheltes met his early
death after being bitten by a snake. Amphiaraus is one of the Seven, so is Adrastus.
We know there was a conflict between the Seven and Lycurgus. The conflict here is
between equals. But there is also a second type of conflict which involves the con
flict of generations. In this motif Achilles is normally the protagonist. There is a
clear reference to a quarrel between Achilles and Odysseus in Book 8 of the Odyssey
(Demodocus' song), a version not alluded to by the poet of the Iliad. Further, Pro
clus testifies to a quarrel between Achilles and Diomedes as an episode in the Aithi
opis. 31 Finally the menis of Achilles is the central theme of the Iliad. It stands to
reason that the motif 'quarrel' was not a unique invention of the poet of the Iliad.
It was rather endemic to the heroic culture, a literary and visual topos, connected
29 Kunze 1950:pl. 45, form xvii e, p. 22; Schefold 1966:83, fig. 31.
30 Schefold 1966:83.
31 Stat. Theb. 4.652ff.; Rose 1958:191 with n. 31. Kullmann 1960:52-57; Andersen 1978:20-21.
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