The female quest for enlightenment: Compassion and patience in transforming gender bias in ...

308 Pages·2013·9.13 MB·English

The female quest for enlightenment: Compassion and patience in
transforming gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism, with specific reference
to Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns and Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo.

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August 2013

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ABSTRACT
This thesis investigates the nature of gender bias in Tibetan Buddhism and the specific
role Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns have played in transforming such prejudice. The
afore-mentioned gender bias pertains particularly to the unavailability of full ordination
(bhikshuni ordination) for nuns in the Tibetan tradition.
The research highlights the specific contribution made by Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, a
British woman and currently the most senior Tibetan Buddhist nun. Jetsunma Tenzin
Palmo attained fame for spending twelve years meditating in a cave in the Himalayas,
and for her statement that she intends to attain enlightenment in a female body. She is
also the founder and abbess of a Tibetan Buddhist nunnery Dongyu Gatsal Ling in
India. Tenzin Palmo is particularly outspoken in her efforts to transform gender bias
within the ranks of Tibetan Buddhism, and serves as an inspiration to countless lay and
monastic Buddhist women worldwide.
The researcher postulates that gender equality has not yet been attained within Tibetan
Buddhism. Androcentric record keeping, certain misogynistic meditation practices, and
cumbersome decision making processes within the Tibetan ecclesiastic system have

maintained gender bias within its institution, despite His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai

Lama’s efforts to assist in the transformation of monastic attitudes.
The Dalai Lama, spiritual head of Tibetan Buddhism and one of its most learned
scholars, has made his position clear as far back as 2007 when he expressed his full
support for the establishment of the Bhikshuni Sangha in the Tibetan tradition. Two
years earlier, in 2005, he had already urged Western bhikshunis to become more
involved in the issue of full ordination in Tibetan Buddhism. Western nuns in particular
have therefore played a leading role in their attempts to transform gender bias in a true
Buddhist spirit of patience and compassion. His Holiness the 17th Gyalwang Karmapa
has been equally outspoken on the issue. In 2010 in Bodhgaya, India, he made a
commitment in front of an international audience to ordaining women as bhikshunis,
and stated unequivocally that he was prepared to ordain these women himself.
However, he did caution against expecting quick results, asking the audience to have
patience.
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In conclusion the thesis suggests that despite a favourable doctrinal attitude to women,
ambiguity still characterises the Tibetan Buddhist approach towards females. There is
tension between an underground tradition of highly accomplished female practitioners
and the institutional preference for male practitioners. Institutionalised gender bias in
Tibetan Buddhism therefore has no sound doctrinal basis in view of the fact that the
Tibetan Buddhist pantheon is rife with female Buddhas, goddesses, dakinis, and other
highly spiritual and enlightened women. Present times are characterised, especially in
the West, by accomplished female academics and Tibetan Buddhist teachers, as well as
prominent nuns. The yogini-tantras furthermore attest to the reverence and honour the
male should afford to the female. Gender hierarchy and male dominance cause untold
suffering and pain, especially devastating for female monastics, and is therefore both
contradictory to Buddhist principles and to the norms of a progressive society.

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KEY WORDS
Buddhism
Gender bias
Tibetan Buddhism
Western Buddhist nuns
Full ordination
Bikshuni Ordination
Enlightenment
Compassion
Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo
Misogynism

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

 My supervisor, Dr. Jaco Beyers, for his continued support, interest, enthusiasm,
and expertise.
 Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo, for her time and generosity in granting me a lengthy
interview, and for perusing parts of the text for accuracy.
 The Western Tibetan Buddhist nuns who responded to the questionnaires,
especially Venerable Bhikshuni Thubten Chodron and Venerable Bhikshuni
Jampa Tsedroen who showed a keen interest in this research and generously
provided additional information.
 Theo de Vries, for his fine-toothed editing, and words of encouragement.
 My children Alexander and Rebecca, for sacrificing time that could have been
spent with them.
 My husband, Pieter, for fetching and carrying library books, for finding rare and
interesting books, and for his abundant systems of support.

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DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to Jetsunma Tenzin Palmo who has served as an inspiration of
wisdom, patience, and compassion in the female quest for enlightenment to thousands
of women, Buddhist and non-Buddhist alike.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: SANDPAPER SISTERHOOD

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 6
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 7
1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN 7
1.4.1 Limitations of the research 8
1.5 RESEARCH METHOD 8
1.6 ETHICS 9
1.7 FOREIGN TERMS 9
1.8 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS 10

CHAPTER TWO: WHAT THE BUDDHA TAUGHT

2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 WHAT IS BUDDHISM? 13

2.2.1 The fundamental tenets of Buddhism 13

2.2.2 The Four Noble Truths 14
2.2.2.1 The First Noble Truth 14
2.2.2.2 The Second Noble Truth 15
2.2.2.3 The Third Noble Truth 15
2.2.2.4 The Fourth Noble Truth 15
2.2.3 Further characteristics of Buddhism 16
2.3 THE VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM 17
2.3.1 Theravada Buddhism 17
2.3.2 Mahayana Buddhism 18
2.4 TIBETAN BUDDHISM 19
2.4.1 Tantra 20
2.4.2 The Nyingma School 23
2.4.3 The Sakya School 25
2.4.4 The Kagyu School 26
2.4.5 The Gelug School 27
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2.5 MASTERS OF TIBETAN BUDDHISM 29
2.5.1 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama 30
2.5.2 His Holiness Sakya Trizin 33
2.5.3 His Holiness the 100th Ganden Tri Rinpoche 33
2.5.4 His Holiness the seventeenth Gyalwa Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje 34
2.5.5 The eighth Khamtrul Rinpoche Dongyud Nyima 34
2.6 BUDDHISM IN THE WEST: HOW THE SWANS CAME TO THE LAKE 35
2.6.1 Thomas William Rhys Davids and Caroline Rhys Davids 36
2.6.2 Sir Edwin Arnold 37
2.6.3 Helena Petrovna Blavatsky 37
2.6.4 Alexandra David-Neel 38
2.6.5 Walter Yeeling Evans-Wentz 40
2.6.6 Carl Gustav Jung 41
2.6.7 James Hilton and T. Lobsang Rampa 41
2.6.8 Ayya Khema 42
2.6.9 Other influential individuals 42
2.6.10 His Holiness the fourteenth Dalai Lama 43
2.7 CONCLUSION 44

CHAPTER THREE: THE LAND OF SNOWS

3.1 INTRODUCTION 46
3.2 THE ROOF OF THE WORLD 47
3.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 49
3.3.1 The Dalai Lamas 50
3.3.2 The British presence in Tibet 50
3.3.3 Tibetan society before the Chinese invasion 52
3.4 THE CHINESE INVASION 53
3.4.1 The national uprising 55
3.4.2 The Cultural Revolution 58
3.4.3 The aftermath 59
3.4.4 The Tibetan environment 61
3.4.5 Tibet today 64
3.4.6 The role of Tibetan women in the protest movement 68
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3.5 THE DIASPORA 69
3.5.1 Tibetans in exile 71
3.5.2 Imprisoned Tibetans 74
3.6 TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN THE WEST 76
3.6.1 Tibetan Buddhism in South Africa 78
3.7 CONCLUSION 79

CHAPTER FOUR: DAUGHTERS OF THE BUDDHA

4.1 INTRODUCTION 83
4.2 SISTERS IN THE FOOTSTEPS OF THE BUDDHA 86
4.2.1 A Buddhist definition of feminism 88
4.2.2 Fear of the feminine? 89
4.2.3 Sisterhood 92
4.2.4 The divine feminine 94
4.2.5 Ambiguities and contradictions 98
4.3 FEMALE DEITIES IN TIBETAN BUDDHISM 101
4.3.1 Training the imagination 103

4.3.2 Tara 105

4.3.2.1 Green Tara: Quintessence of compassion 106
4.3.2.2 White Tara: The seven eyes of wisdom 109
4.3.2.3 Red Tara 110
4.3.3 Vajrayogini 111
4.3.4 Other Tantric goddesses 112
4.4 YOGINIS 113
4.4.1 Yeshe Tsogyel 114
4.4.2 Machig Lapdron 115
4.5 DAKINIS 116
4.6 PRESENT FEMALE INCARNATIONS 117
4.6.1 Khandro Rinpoche 117
4.6.1 Ahkon Norbu Lhamo 118
4.7 THE FEMALE QUEST FOR ENLIGHTENMENT 119
4.8 CONCLUSION 121
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CHAPTER FIVE: BLOSSOMS OF THE DHARMA: LIVING AS A WESTERN
TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUN

5.1 INTRODUCTION 124
5.2 YOU ARE BECOMING A WHAT? 126
5.2.1 The contribution of Western nuns 128
5.3 MONASTIC TRAINING 129
5.3.1 Training for Western nuns 130
5.3.2 The precepts 132
5.4 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS: A NEW PHENOMENON IN AN
ANCIENT TRADITION 133
5.4.1 Transforming obstacles 137
5.4.2 The daily life of a Western Tibetan Buddhist nun 138
5.5 THE MISSING PILLAR: FULL ORDINATION FOR TIBETAN BUDDHIST
NUNS 139
5.5.1 Full ordination and the reconstruction of religious traditions 140
5.5.2 The full ordination ceremony in Bodhgaya 140
5.5.3 The Upasampada ritual 144

5.5.4 The instatement of the Mulasarvastivada bhikshuni ordination 146

5.6 GENDER POLITICS 147
5.7 PROMINENT WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNS 148
5.7.1 Venerable Jampa Tsedroen 149
5.7.2 Venerable Karma Lekshe Tsomo 151
5.7.3 Venerable Thubten Chodron 152
5.7.4 Venerable Pema Chodron 153
5.8 OTHER DISTINGUISHED WESTERN NUNS IN THE TIBETAN TRADITION 153
5.8.1 Venerable Kunga Chodron 154
5.8.2 Lama Gelongma Zangmo 155
5.8.3 Venerable Robina Courtin 156
5.8.4 Venerable Kelsang Wangmo 157
5.9 WESTERN TIBETAN BUDDHIST NUNNERIES 158
5.9.1 Gampo Abbey 158
5.9.2 Sravasti Abbey 160
5.9.3 The Chenrezig Nuns’ Community 161
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