The discursive

303 Pages·2013·14.06 MB·English

The discursive (re)construction of national identity in
Cyprus and England with special reference to history
textbooks: a comparative study
Klerides L. Eleftherios
Institute ofEducation, University ofLondon
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment ofthe requirements for the degree of
Doctor ofPhilosophy
February 2008
Iherebydeclare that, exceptwhere explicit attribution is made, the workpresented inthis
thesis is entirelymy own.
Eleftherios L. Klerides
Word count (exclusive ofappendix and bibliography): 98139 words
11
Abstract
This thesis is an analysis ofnational identity construction in Cyprus and England in
two historical times: the period following the Greek and Turkish military offensives in
Cyprus (1974-93), and the periodofthe Conservative administration in Britain (1979-97). It
examines identity formations in history textbooks across the two settings and addresses their
relationship with intellectual andpolitical constructs ofidentity.
These periods were moments of a metamorphosis ofidentity in both settings. This
identity reconstruction was firstly materialised in the signifying practices ofpoliticians and
intellectuals. As an effect ofthe emergence ofnew nationalist discourses in the political and
intellectual fields was the production ofnew history textbooks, making it possible for the
national image to be also reconstituted in and through them. New identities were articulated
in the field ofschool historybut their redefinition varied within and across the two settings.
Variations within each setting were primarily determined by the particular features ofthe
social domain in which the construction of identity took place. Across the settings, they
were mainly shaped by different genres ofschool history writing. Despite their differences,
the new identities across the two cultural settings and social fields shared certain similar
motifs - fragmentation, hybridityand ambivalence.
It is therefore suggested that the making ofidentity in history textbooks cannot be
understoodby focusing solely on textbooks. Knowledge ofthe specificities ofthe historical,
the intellectual, the political and the educational layers of the context in which they are
embedded aswell as the complex linkages between identifications articulatedin these layers,
is required. Based on this finding, this thesis attempts to formulate a theoretical model that
enhances the understandingofhow national identity isproduced, sustained, transformed and
dismantleddiscursivelyin historytextbooks.
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Table ofcontents
Acknowledgements. .. .. ... ... .. .... ..... ... ... ... . .. ... . ... ... .... VI
Declarationform. . .. .. . ... ..... .... .. ... .... ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... .... Vll
CHAPTERONE - Introduction
1.1Main theme and comparativerationale. .... .. ... ... . ... .. . ... ... ... . 1
1.2Thesis arguments and chapter structure ... ... .. ... . ... .. . .. . ... ... .. 4
CHAPTERTWO - Theories and concepts: a discursive approach to the
construction ofnational identity
2.1 Introduction. . .. .. .. ... ... ...... ..... .... .. ... . .. ... . ... ... ... . 7
2.2National identityin the comparative education canon. . .. .. . ... ... .. ... 8
2.3New perspectives on national identity. .. .... .. . .. . .. .. .. .. ... .. .... 11
2.4 Implications for comparative educational research. ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. 19
2.5 Discourse as atheoretical andmethodological bridge. . . .. . ... .. ... . ... 23
2.6 Conclusion. . .. . ... .. ... .... .. .... .. ... ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... ... 29
CHAPTERTHREE- Contexts and discourses: a genealogy ofnational
identity in Cyprus and England
3.1 Introduction................................................. 35
3.2.1 The ethnic and irredentist construct ofGreek identity. .. .. . ... .. . .. ... 36
3.2.2 The civic and territorial configuration ofCypriot identity. . ... . ... .. ... 42
3.3.1 The civic and imperial formation ofBritish identity. .. .. . ... .. ... ... . 45
3.3.2 The ethnic and imperial construct ofEnglish identity. . .. .. .. .. ... .. .. 51
3.4 Conclusion.................................................. 56
CHAPTERFOUR- New discourses ofnational identityin Cyprus and
England: the perspective ofpoliticians and intellectuals
4.1 Introduction................................................. 63
4.2 Discursive constructs ofnational identity inpost-I974 Cyprus. ... .. ... 64
4.2.1 The projectionofa Cypriot people. ... .... .. . ... .. .. .. .. ... . ..... 65
4.2.2 Themakingofa commonpresent and future: 'the Cyprus Problem' .. ... 69
4.2.3 The construction ofacommon national past. ... . ... .. . ... .. ... ... .. 74
4.3 Discursive constructs ofnational identity inpost-imperial England. . ... . 79
4.3.1 The constructionofnational 'others': anation under threat. .. . ... ... .. 80
4.3.2 The makingofa common culture andcharacter. . . .. ... . ... .. ... . ... 84
4.3.3 The constitutionofacommon present andfuture: anationin decline. ... 87
4.3.4 Thenarrationofcommonnational pastes).. .. ... .. . ... .. .. .. ... .... 89
4.4 Concludingcomparativeremarks. ... ..... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ... ... 93
IV
CHAPTERFIVE- Contexts of reception: education, school history and
national identityin Cyprus and England
5.1 Introduction................................................. 104
5.2.1 An educationfor national and imperial identification and superiority. ... 105
5.2.2 The traditional historyand the genre oftraditional historytextbook. .. ... 106
5.2.3 The newhistoryand the genre ofnew historytextbook. .. ... ... . ... .. 109
5.2.4 An educationfor culturalpluralismand anti-racism. .. .. .. .. ... ... .. . 112
5.2.5 The constructionofnational identityin schoolhistories. . ... .. ... ... .. 115
5.3.1 An education for national belongingness and culturalpreservation. .. . .. 128
5.3.2 The traditional history and the genre oftraditional historytextbook. .. ... 129
5.3.3 The construction ofnational identityin schoolhistories. . ... .. ... .... . 133
5.4 Conclusion.................................................. 143
CHAPTERSIX - Discursive constructs of national identityin Cyprus: the
perspective of historytextbooks
6.1 Introduction ,.. . 152
6.2 The communicativepurposes ofhistoryteaching and writing. . ... ... .. .. 152
6.3 The narrative strand ofheteronomyand autonomy. . .. .. .. ... . ... .. ... 153
6.4 The narrative strand ofChristianity. .. ..... . ... .. ... . ... .. ... ... ... 173
6.5 The narrative strand ofHellenism.... .... .. ... ... . ... .. . ... ... ... .. 183
6.6 Conclusion. . ... .. ... . ..... .... .. .... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. ... ... ... 194
CHAPTERSEVEN- Discursive constructs ofnational identity in
England: the perspective of history textbooks
7.1 Introduction. . .. .. .. ... ..... .... .. .... ... ... .. .. .. .. ... .. .... .. 200
7.2 The aims and purposes ofhistoryteaching and writing. . ... .. .. ... . .... 200
7.3 The origins ofthe Englishnation. .... ..... .. ... . ... .. . ... .. .. ..... 201
7.4 The narrative strand ofconstitutional development. .. . .. .. ... .. ... . ... 203
7.5 The narrative strand ofexpansionism. .. ..... .. .. ... .. . ... .. ... ... .. 212
7.6 The narrative strand ofsociety, economyand culture. .. ... . ... .. .. .. .. 228
7.7 Conclusion. . .. ... . ... ... ...... .. ... .... ... .. .. .. .. .. .. ... ..... 243
CHAPTEREIGHT- Conclusion
8.1 Thesis summary: the course ofthe argument. .. ... . ... .. . ... .. .. . .... 248
8.2 Contrastingconceptions ofnational identity: aparadox. . .. .. .. ... ... ... 258
8.3 The construction ofnational identityrevisited. .. ... .. .. .. .. ... . ..... . 259
8.4 Suggestions for future research. ..... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .... .. 263
8.5 Reflections on the thesis. . ... .. ...... .... ... .. ... 265
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . .. . ..... .... .. .... .... ... ... . .. ... . ... ... .... 273
APPENDIXONE. ... . .. ... .... ...... ..... ... ... . .. .. .. ... ... ... .. 293
v
List oftables
Table One Lexicalisation ofthe main actors inperiods ofheteronomy ... ..... 158
Table Two Lexicalisationofthe main actors and their acts in the sub-strandof
expansionwithin the British Isles. . ... ... . .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... . 214
Table Three The representationofthe main actors inthe sub-strand ofimperial
expansion ... ... ..... .... .. .... ... .. ... . ... .. . ... ... ..... 222
Table Four Patterns ofwording those who benefitedfrom industrialism and
those who did not. ... ...... ..... ... ... . .. .. .. ... .. ... .... . 238
Table Five Assumptions onthe nature ofnational identities. .. .. .. ... .... .. 258
VI
Acknowledgements
This thesis has been the outcome ofa long andpainstaking effort that would not have
been completed without the generous andkind assistance and contributions Iwas fortunateto
receive by various individuals and institutions. I am indebted to all ofthem and Iwould like
tothank them for their presence while writing this thesis.
First ofall, Iwould like to thank the A.G. Leventis Foundation and the Tyrimou fund
for funding my research project at its various stages. Without their financial support
undertaking and finalising thisproject would not have been feasible or sustainable.
Special thanks are owed to Demetris Charalambous for inspiring me to pursue a PhD
in the first place and for his consistent support and care throughout the years. Also, this
thesis has benefited greatly from the various discussions I have had with many people from
the Institute of Education and beyond and I would like to thank them here. They are too
many to name, but I would like to include Jan Blommaert, David Crook, Eva Gamarnikow,
Katerina Daniil, Stavros Moutsios, Yiannis Papadakis, Sophia Diamantopoulou, Costas
Voros, Panayiotis Persianis andKaori Okumoto.
Above all, I am grateful to my supervisors, Bob Cowen and Bob Ferguson, for their
constant guidance, advice, encouragement, enthusiasm and professionalism. I was lucky to
have them as my supervisors, as they made thisjourneyan intellectual sustenance, challenge
and growth. Special thanks to Bob Cowen who undertook the biggest burden ofsupervision
andwho didnot sparetime whenever Ineeded him.
Most importantly, I am indebted to my parents for their loving patience and support
both emotionally and financially. I also wish to acknowledge the hospitality of the
Chrysostomou family with whom Istayedthroughout my studies in London.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my fiancee, Theophania Chavatzia, for her
strong commitment and support and for putting up with me in difficult times. Her presence
hasbeen asource ofstrength inmore ways than shecan ever imagine.
However, for any errors or inaccuracies that may appear in this thesis, I, alone,
remain responsible.
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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1Main theme and comparative rationale
This thesis seeks to offer a comparative analysis of the construction of national
identity in Cyprus and England1 at two specific historical moments: the period following
the Greek and Turkish military offensives in Cyprus, where a Centre-Left political
coalition was in power for most ofthe time (1974-93), and the period ofthe administration
of the Conservative Party in Britain (1979-97). More specifically, it will examine
constructs of identity in history textbooks across the two settings and will attempt to
address their relationship with formations of identity promoted by politicians and
intellectuals.
The desire to write this thesis began when I was doing my MA studies in
Comparative Education. From my general readings, I knew that Cyprus and England are
different in many ways - not least historically and culturally. Nevertheless, while
exploring educational reforms and social change in Cyprus and England during the last
quarter ofthe twentieth century, Ihad noticed that they also experiencedparticular similar
phenomena in relation to school history and national identity, especially during this
specifictime period.
In England, historycurricular reform took place in the late 1980s and early 1990s2.
The Education Reform Act of 1988 introduced for the first time in English education a
national curriculum in history that was compulsory for the ages five to sixteen. This
initiative resulted in the production and distribution ofnew textbooks in the early-to-mid
1990sto support the teaching of'British' history'.
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The writing ofnew textbooks occurred against the background of concerns about
the general state ofthe national community and identity". These concerns were primarily
voiced by conservative politicians and intellectuals, portraying images of 'a nation in
decline' and 'a nation under threat'. As a response to perceived communal 'crisis' and a
possible 'loss' of identity, the Conservatives tried simultaneously to reverse 'decline' by
transforming the nation's identity and to safeguard it against 'dangers'. Yet, the sort of
identity that was to be both transformed andmaintainedwas ambiguous. This derives from
what is often called in the relevant literature as the historical problem and enigma of
national identityin England- English orBritish?5
Moreover, national identity became an object ofconcern in the shadow ofintense
change. There was for example the collapse ofthe British Empire, the relative economic
and political decline ofBritain as a world power, membership ofthe European Economic
Community and later ofthe European Union, immigration from the New Commonwealth
andthe rise ofmulticultural and antiracist ideologies in society.
Meanwhile, in Cyprus, history curriculum reform also occurred at the last quarter
ofthe twentieth century. The education reforms of 1976-80 introduced for the first time in
the history of Greek education on the island the teaching of Cypriot history as a subject
separate from Greek history". The teaching ofthe historyofCyprus was compulsory inthe
last grade of upper-secondary schooling and supplementary both in the other grades of
secondary education and in the last four grades ofprimary education. This initiative was
accompaniedwith the production ofnew textbooks. One series appearedinthe years 1978
80and another in the late 1980s and early 1990s7.
At the same time, as in England, identity also became an object ofattention largely
to politicians and intellectuals from the Centre-Left camps. In their speeches and writings,
they expressed concerns about the general condition ofCyprus which was perceived to be
in danger of annihilation. As a response to this 'threat', real or imaginary, and to the
insecurity about the future, they advocated 'a struggle for survival' that included two
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uneasily combined and even contradictoryprocesses: to transform the people's entrenched
identity and to maintain and resist changes in it. In the relevant literature, these processes
are often related to the intensification ofthe Greek Cypriot dilemma ofnational identity
which revolves around the question: Greek or Cypriot?"
As in England, moreover, concerns over identityin Cyprus were voiced in the light
of radical changes. These include the Greek-led coup and the Turkish invasion, the
territorial division ofthe island, the violent displacement ofpopulations, ethnic separation,
the establishment ofan internationallyunrecognisedTurkish Cypriot state in the north, and
the colonisation ofthe north by Anatolian settlers.
This apparently similar experience - the writing ofnew history textbooks against
the background of broader curricular reforms, political and intellectual concerns about
nationhood or peoplehood, the dual conception of national identity and simultaneous
efforts to transform and maintainidentity - yet in two such differentcountries captured my
interest. How could it be explained? And perhaps more importantly, how could it be
approached and studied comparatively without glossing over such motifs as history,
culture, conflict and difference - the themes that make comparisons and particularly the
field ofcomparative educationintellectuallyinterestingand compelling'"?
Based on discourse analysis, this thesis uses a comparative perspective to explain
and understand this similar experience across the two different settings. The analysis of
discourse primarily endeavours to understand why ofall the things that could be said and
done at a specific period in a given society, only certain things are said and done!'. From
this point ofview, several questions arosethat inspired me to start my research:
• What made 'the nation' or 'the people' become objects ofattention for politicians and
intellectuals in the two settings during acertain historical time?
• Was there anew discourse about the national 'self' in each place? Ifyes, in what ways
was it new, and,what was itsnature? English or British?/Greek or Cypriot?
3