The Development of Problem-Solving Abilities in Typical and Atypical Development

320 Pages·2014·3.34 MB·English

The Development of Problem-Solving Abilities in Typical and
Atypical Development

Joanne Sara Camp

Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Institute of Education, University of London

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Abstract

Throughout our lives we engage in problem solving, which is thought to depend on
executive functions (EFs) e.g., inhibition, shifting and working memory. Previous work
has identified the need to consider these abilities in an everyday context. EF skills are
known to be impaired in Williams syndrome (WS) and Down syndrome (DS). This
thesis aims to investigate experimental and real-life problem solving in WS and DS, and
how these groups use EF skills to solve problems, through experimental and
questionnaire-based cross-syndrome comparisons.

Participants with WS and DS aged 12-24 years (Ns=20) and typically developing (TD)
controls (N=56; nonverbal matched subset = 20) completed the Tower of London (TOL)
problem-solving task and a battery of EF tests. In a separate study, parents (WS, DS, TD;
total N=112) completed the BRIEF (Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive
Functioning) and a novel Problem-Solving Questionnaire.

The WS group, but not the DS group, scored more poorly on the TOL than the
nonverbal-matched controls. In WS, developmental trajectory analysis indicated over-
reliance on planning for TOL performance for low planning scores. For the DS group
only speed of picture matching was associated with TOL performance, while more rule
violations were exhibited than for the WS group. Questionnaire scores were poor for the
WS group in relation to DS and TD groups. Asking for help for the DS group, and
becoming emotional for the WS group, was related to reaching the solution. In general,
associations between experimental and everyday measures were scarce.

It was concluded that: while EFs (planning, visuospatial working memory) were
constraining factors for WS problem solving, alternative strategies were used by the DS
group to reach the solution; real-life problem solving should be considered in its own
right; and poor WS problem solving may be related to emotional difficulties.

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I hereby declare that, except where explicit attribution is made,
the work presented in this thesis is entirely my own.

Word count (exclusive of list of references and appendices):
87622 words

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Publications

In the course of undertaking the study of Williams syndrome for work towards
this thesis, the following publications were produced.

Camp, J. S., Farran, E. & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2012) 'Numeracy'. In E. Farran and A.
Karmiloff-Smith (eds.) Neurodevelopmental disorders across the lifespan: the
neuroconstructivist approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Camp, J. S. & Karmiloff-Smith, A. (in press) Williams Syndrome. International
Encyclopaedia of Social and Behavioural Sciences.

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Acknowledgements

I am very grateful to everyone who helped me along the road to completing my
thesis, as well as being indebted to you all for useful discussions and suggestions.
Thank you first to my supervisor and mentor Emily Farran, for your enthusiasm
and encouragement; patience, understanding and cheerfulness; and knowing
when I needed ‘reining in’. Your guidance and support has been invaluable. Thank
you to my co-supervisors Annette Karmiloff-Smith and Michael Thomas, for their
wisdom, insights and advice. A huge thank you is due to the participants, parents
and schools involved in the studies, to the Williams Syndrome Foundation and to
the Down Syndrome Association, without whom the research could not have been
conducted. I am grateful to the Bloomsbury Colleges Symposium for funding the
studentship, and to the Institute of Education and Birkbeck College for additional
funding. Many thanks to Liz Pellicano for taking me under her wing, and to Sarah
Beck for help with questionnaires. Hannah Broadbent, thank you for being my
sounding board. Thanks also to other members of and visitors to the CogDev lab,
particularly Harry Purser and Suzy Cooper. Kyra, for listening, and making cakes
from felt and sponge: what would I have done without you! Matt, my best friend,
protector and ally: thank you for believing in me, for spurring me on, and for
making me dinner – for once, I don’t have enough words… The teachers who
pushed me onward and upward should be recognised here: Mr Swan, for calling
me ‘Jo’, and Mr Hamblin, for my introduction to Psychology. Finally, thank you to
my parents and grandparents for giving me ‘roots and wings’, and for unfailingly
knowing I could do it.

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Table of Contents
TABLE OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. 9
TABLE OF TABLES .............................................................................................................................. 11
LIST OF FREQUENTLY USED ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 14
1.1 RATIONALE AND APPROACH .............................................................................................................. 14
1.1.1 What is problem solving? ................................................................................................ 14
1.1.2 Why study problem solving in neurodevelopmental disorders? ...................................... 15
1.1.3 Neuroconstructivism and neurodevelopmental disorders ............................................... 16
1.1.4 Using developmental trajectories .................................................................................... 16
1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................ 17
1.2.1 Williams syndrome (WS) and Down syndrome (DS) ........................................................ 17
1.2.2 Problem solving ............................................................................................................... 24
1.2.3 Executive functioning (EF) ............................................................................................... 36
1.2.4 Problem solving outside the laboratory .......................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 2: EXPERIMENTAL MEASURES OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND PROBLEM SOLVING .......... 63
2.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 63
2.1.1 Links between executive functioning and TOL performance ........................................... 63
2.1.2 The current study ............................................................................................................. 64
2.2 METHOD ...................................................................................................................................... 68
2.2.1 Participants ..................................................................................................................... 68
2.2.2 Ethical considerations ...................................................................................................... 69
2.2.3 Overall design and procedure .......................................................................................... 70
2.2.4 Task-specific outlines ....................................................................................................... 71
2.3 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................................... 90
2.3.1 TOL coding ....................................................................................................................... 90
2.3.2 TOL scoring ...................................................................................................................... 92
2.3.3 Analyses and parametric assumptions ............................................................................ 94
2.3.4 Matched group comparisons ........................................................................................... 95
2.3.5 Relationships between EF and TOL tasks ....................................................................... 106
2.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 118
2.4.1 TOL................................................................................................................................. 119
2.4.2 Chronological age (CA) .................................................................................................. 121
2.4.3 RCPM and TOL score...................................................................................................... 121
2.4.4 BPVS .............................................................................................................................. 123
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2.4.5 Planning ......................................................................................................................... 124
2.4.6 Working memory ........................................................................................................... 127
2.4.7 Inhibition ....................................................................................................................... 131
2.4.8 Shifting .......................................................................................................................... 138
2.4.9 Chapter summary .......................................................................................................... 140
CHAPTER 3: EXPLORING PERFORMANCE ON THE TOWER OF LONDON TASK .................................. 142
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 142
3.1.1 Problem types ................................................................................................................ 142
3.1.2 Scoring ........................................................................................................................... 143
3.1.3 Aims ............................................................................................................................... 148
3.2 METHOD .................................................................................................................................... 149
3.3 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 149
3.3.1 TOL scores by problem type ........................................................................................... 149
3.3.2 EF correlations by problem type .................................................................................... 151
3.3.3 Timing measures ........................................................................................................... 153
3.3.4 TOL behaviours .............................................................................................................. 156
3.3.5 TOL correlation analysis ................................................................................................ 160
3.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 163
3.4.1 Problem type ................................................................................................................. 163
3.4.2 Error types ..................................................................................................................... 167
3.4.3 Timing ............................................................................................................................ 168
3.4.4 Rule violations (RVs) ...................................................................................................... 173
3.4.5 Further measures........................................................................................................... 174
3.4.6 Remaining correlations between measures .................................................................. 176
3.4.7 Correlations with CA ...................................................................................................... 177
3.4.8 Chapter summary .......................................................................................................... 178
CHAPTER 4: EVERYDAY MEASURES OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND PROBLEM SOLVING ............... 180
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 180
4.1.1 Problem solving inside and outside the laboratory ....................................................... 180
4.1.2 Everyday life in WS and DS ............................................................................................ 182
4.1.3 Measuring everyday life skills ........................................................................................ 186
4.1.4 Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) ........................................... 187
4.1.5 Problem-Solving Questionnaire (PSQ) ........................................................................... 189
4.2 METHOD .................................................................................................................................... 192
4.2.1 Participants ................................................................................................................... 192
4.2.2 Materials ....................................................................................................................... 195
4.2.3 Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 196
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4.2.4 Design ............................................................................................................................ 196
4.3 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 199
4.3.1 Data handling ................................................................................................................ 200
4.3.2 Percentage score analysis ............................................................................................. 205
4.3.3 BRIEF analysis ................................................................................................................ 212
4.3.4 PSQ analysis................................................................................................................... 219
4.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 235
4.4.1 Group performance across questionnaires.................................................................... 235
4.4.2 Performance on the BRIEF: indices and scales .............................................................. 239
4.4.3 Performance on the PSQ................................................................................................ 241
4.4.4 Aspects associated with reaching the solution .............................................................. 248
4.4.5 Exploring and accounting for better DS than WS performance..................................... 250
4.4.6 Chapter summary .......................................................................................................... 253
CHAPTER 5: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND QUESTIONNAIRE MEASURES ............ 254
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 254
5.2 METHOD .................................................................................................................................... 254
5.3 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 255
5.4 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................ 260
CHAPTER 6: GENERAL DISCUSSION.................................................................................................. 266
6.1 AIMS AND OVERVIEW .................................................................................................................... 266
6.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................................... 267
6.2.1 Summary of findings by chapter .................................................................................... 267
6.2.2 Patterns of findings throughout this thesis ................................................................... 269
6.2.3 Considerations from a neuroconstructivist perspective ................................................ 271
6.3 LIMITATIONS AND RELATED CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................................... 274
6.3.1 Experimental work ......................................................................................................... 274
6.3.2 Questionnaires .............................................................................................................. 280
6.4 OVERALL IMPLICATIONS AND FURTHER WORK ..................................................................................... 282
REFERENCE LIST............................................................................................................................... 290
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................... 305
APPENDIX A: TOWER OF LONDON PROBLEM SET .......................................................................................... 306
APPENDIX B: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES WITH SIGNIFICANT RELATIONSHIPS IN ONE GROUP ONLY .................... 307
APPENDIX C: BRIEF EXAMPLE ITEMS ......................................................................................................... 310
APPENDIX D: PROBLEM-SOLVING QUESTIONNAIRE ...................................................................................... 311

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Table of Figures
FIGURE 1.1: SCHEMATIC EXAMPLES OF DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY PATTERNS BETWEEN GROUPS .............................. 17
FIGURE 1.2: THE TOWER OF HANOI (TOH): EXAMPLE OF A 3-DISC PROBLEM ........................................................... 27
FIGURE 1.3: THE TOWER OF LONDON (TOL): EXAMPLE OF A 4-MOVE PROBLEM ....................................................... 28
FIGURE 2.1: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF TOWER OF LONDON (TOL) APPARATUS ............................................... 72
FIGURE 2.2: SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF INHIBITION TASK.. ............................................................................ 75
FIGURE 2.3: PLANNING TASK APPARATUS .......................................................................................................... 80
FIGURE 2.4: APPARATUS FOR PLANNING TASK: HOUSE WITH BALLOON, CAKE AND MILK BOX ........................................ 81
FIGURE 2.5: GAME BOARDS FOR PHASES TWO AND THREE OF THE PLANNING TASK ..................................................... 82
FIGURE 2.6: INITIAL PRACTICE TRIALS IN PHASE 1 FOR SHAPE AND COLOUR CRITERIA OF THE SHIFTING TASK ..................... 84
FIGURE 2.7: EXPERIMENTAL STIMULI IN PHASES 1 AND 2 OF THE SHIFTING TASK ........................................................ 85
FIGURE 2.8: EXAMPLE STIMULI FROM PHASE 3 OF THE SHIFTING TASK: TRAINING AND EXPERIMENTAL ........................... 86
FIGURE 2.9: VISUOSPATIAL MEMORY TASK APPARATUS ........................................................................................ 88
FIGURE 2.10: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF TOL SCORE ACROSS MATCHED GROUPS .................................................. 94
FIGURE 2.11: MEAN (S.E.) OF TOL SCORE ACROSS MATCHED GROUPS. .................................................................. 96
FIGURE 2.12: TRIALS CORRECT ON THE PLANNING TASK BY GROUP .......................................................................... 99
FIGURE 2.13: NUMBER OF SHIFTS MADE ON THE SHIFTING TASK BY GROUP ............................................................ 100
FIGURE 2.14: PERCENTAGE ACCURACY TO SAME AND OPPOSITE CONDITIONS OF INHIBITION TASK BY GROUP ................. 100
FIGURE 2.15: REACTION TIME TO SAME AND OPPOSITE CONDITIONS OF INHIBITION TASK BY GROUP ............................ 102
FIGURE 2.16: SPAN MEASURES ACROSS FOUR WORKING MEMORY TASKS BY GROUP ................................................. 104
FIGURE 2.17: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF TOL SCORE BASED ON BPVS SCORE ............................................... 112
FIGURE 2.18: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF TOL SCORE BASED ON PLANNING TASK SCORE .................................. 113
FIGURE 2.19: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF TOL SCORE BASED ON PROPORTIONAL ACCURACY CHANGE ON THE
INHIBITION TASK ............................................................................................................................... 114
FIGURE 2.20: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF TOL SCORE BASED ON RT TO SAME CONDITION OF INHIBITION TASK ..... 115
FIGURE 2.21: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORY OF TOL SCORE BASED ON RT TO OPPOSITE CONDITION OF INHIBITION TASK 116
FIGURE 2.22: SCATTER PLOT OF BACKWARDS BLOCK SPAN AND TOL SCORE ............................................................ 117
FIGURE 2.23: SCATTER PLOT OF BACKWARDS DIGIT SPAN AND TOL SCORE ............................................................. 117
FIGURE 3.1: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) TOTAL TOL SCORE BY PROBLEM TYPE ............................................................... 150
FIGURE 3.2: GROUP MEAN (S.E.) OF PLANNING TIME (SECONDS) BY PROBLEM TYPE ................................................ 154
FIGURE 3.3: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) OF TIME PER MOVE (SECONDS) BY PROBLEM TYPE ............................................... 155
FIGURE 3.4: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) OF RULE VIOLATIONS PER ATTEMPTED TRIAL BY ACCURACY .................................... 157
FIGURE 3.5: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) OF VERBALISATIONS PER ATTEMPTED TRIAL BY ACCURACY ..................................... 158
FIGURE 3.6: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) OF ERROR TYPES.. ......................................................................................... 160
FIGURE 4.1: PERCENTAGE OF MISSING ITEMS BY BRIEF SCALE AND GROUP ............................................................ 201
FIGURE 4.2: PERCENTAGE OF MISSING RESPONSES BY QUESTION ON THE PSQ ........................................................ 204
FIGURE 4.3: OVERALL PERCENTAGE SCORES ON THE BRIEF AND PSQ BY GROUP ..................................................... 206
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FIGURE 4.4: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF BRIEF PERCENTAGE BASED ON CA ................................................ 208
FIGURE 4.5: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF PSQ PERCENTAGE BASED ON CA ................................................... 208
FIGURE 4.6: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF BRIEF PERCENTAGE BASED ON BPVS SCORE ................................... 209
FIGURE 4.7: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF PSQ PERCENTAGE BASED ON BPVS SCORE ...................................... 210
FIGURE 4.8: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF BRIEF PERCENTAGE BASED ON RCPM SCORE .................................. 211
FIGURE 4.9: DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF PSQ PERCENTAGE BASED ON RCPM SCORE .................................... 212
FIGURE 4.10: MEAN ITEM SCORE ON THE BRIEF SCALES BY GROUP ...................................................................... 213
FIGURE 4.11: CANONICAL DISCRIMINANT FUNCTION SCATTERPLOT. ...................................................................... 216
FIGURE 4.12: GROUP MEANS (S.E.) OF SCORES ON THREE BRIEF INDICES BY GROUP ............................................... 218
FIGURE 4.13: GROUP MEANS (S.E) OF REACHING-THE-SOLUTION SCORE BY QUESTION AND GROUP ............................ 219
FIGURE 4.14: GROUP MEANS (S.E) OF SHARED ASPECT SCORES FOR APPROACHING A PROBLEM BY QUESTION ............... 222
FIGURE 4.15: MEANS (S.E) OF APPROACH ASPECT SCORES BY QUESTION, COLLAPSED ACROSS GROUP ......................... 224
FIGURE 4.16: GROUP MEANS (S.E) OF RESPONSE ASPECT SCORES ........................................................................ 226
FIGURE 4.17: MEANS (S.E) OF RESPONSE ASPECT SCORES BY QUESTION, COLLAPSED ACROSS GROUP.. ........................ 228

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