Table Of Content33418_FM_ptg01_hr_i-xix.indd 1 24/08/13 2:49 PM
The Changing Earth
Exploring Geology and Evolution
seventh edition
James S. Monroe
Professor Emeritus
Central Michigan University
Reed Wicander
Central Michigan University
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and © 2015, 2012 Cengage Learning
Evolution, Seventh Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
James S. Monroe and Reed Wicander
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About the cover image:
The Snake River and Teton Range, Wyoming The Snake River, in the foreground, meanders through
Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. A large point bar (see Chapter 12) can be clearly seen in the
lower left corner. The snow-covered Teton Range, including the Grand Teton (the highest peak visible)
of the Rocky Mountains is dramatically set off in the background with several easily identified glacial
features such as U-shaped valleys and horns (see Chapter 14). Bridger-Teton National Forest, located in
western Wyoming, consists of 14,000 km2 of forest and is part of the 81,000 km2 Greater Yellowstone
Ecosystem, one of few remaining sizeable, northern temperate zone ecosystems.
Printed in the United States of America
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 17 16 15 14 13
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Brief Contents
1 Understanding Earth: A Dynamic and Evolving Planet
3
2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory
27
3 Minerals—The Building Blocks of Rocks
61
4 Igneous Rocks and Plutons
87
5 Volcanoes and Volcanism
111
6 Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
137
7 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks
159
8 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
181
9 Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior
201
10 Deformation, Mountain Building, and Earth’s Crust
235
11 Mass Wasting
257
12 Running Water—Streams and Rivers
283
13 Groundwater
309
14 Glaciers and Glaciation
337
15 The Work of Wind and Deserts
363
16 Oceans, Shorelines, and Shoreline Processes
385
17 Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles
413
18 Organic Evolution—The Theory and Its Supporting Evidence
447
19 Precambrian Earth and Life History
471
20 Paleozoic Earth History
501
21 Paleozoic Life History
539
22 Mesozoic Earth and Life History
575
23 Cenozoic Earth and Life History
613
24 Geology in Perspective
655
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents
11
Similarity of Rock Sequences and Mountain
Ranges 30
Glacial Evidence 30
Understanding Earth: Fossil Evidence 31
A Dynamic and Evolving Planet Features of the Seafloor 32
3
The Continental Shelf, Slope, and Rise 32
Introduction 4 Abyssal Plains, Oceanic Ridges, Submarine
What Is Geology? 4 Hydrothermal Vents, and Oceanic Trenches 33
Geology and the Formulation of Theories 5 Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges 33
Continental Margins 35
How Does Geology Relate to the Human Experience? 6
Earth’s Magnetic Field 35
How Does Geology Affect Our Everyday Lives? 6
Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering 36
Global Geologic and Environmental Issues Facing
Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading 37
Humankind 7
Deep-Sea Drilling and the Confirmation of Seafloor
Geo-impact: Hydraulic Fracturing and Its Impact
Spreading 38
on a Community 8
Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 40
Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earth’s
The Three Types of Plate Boundaries 40
Place in Them 10
Geo-impact: The Hazards of Living Near a Convergent
Origin of the Universe—Did It Begin with a Big
Plate Boundary 41
Bang? 10
Our Solar System—Its Origin and Evolution 12 Divergent Boundaries 41
Earth—Its Place in Our Solar System 13 Geo-iNSiGHt: Plate Boundaries, Earthquakes,
Geo-iNSiGHt: Mars—The “Red Planet” 14 and Tsunami 42
Why Earth Is a Dynamic and Evolving Planet 16 Convergent Boundaries 45
Transform Boundaries 48
Plate Tectonic Theory 16
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes 49
The Rock Cycle 18
How Are the Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics Plate Movement and Motion 50
Related? 19 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics 51
Organic Evolution and the History of Life 21 Geo-impact: Molybdenum Mining and Economic,
Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism 22 Environmental, and Political Concerns 53
How Does the Study of Geology Benefit Us? 23 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural
Resources 53
Petroleum 53
Mineral Deposits 54
2
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life 55
Plate Tectonics: A Unifying
3
Theory
27
Introduction 28
Minerals—The Building
Early Ideas About Continental Drift 28
Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Blocks of Rocks
61
Hypothesis 29
What Is the Evidence for Continental Drift? 29 Introduction 62
Continental Fit 29 Geo-impact: Minerals and the Economy 63
iv
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Contents v
Matter—What Is It? 63 Geo-FocuS: Granite—Common, Attractive, and
Atoms and Elements 63 Useful 100
Geo-iNSiGHt: The Precious Metals and Gemstones 64 Geo-impact: Classification and History
Bonding and Compounds 66 of Igneous Rocks 102
Explore the World of Minerals 68 Intrusive Igneous Bodies—Plutons 103
Naturally Occurring Inorganic Substances 68 Dikes, Sills, and Laccoliths 103
Mineral Crystals 69 Volcanic Pipes and Necks 103
Chemical Composition of Minerals 70 Batholiths and Stocks 104
Physical Properties of Minerals 71 The Origin of Batholiths 106
Mineral Groups Recognized by Geologists 71
Silicate Minerals 71
Carbonate Minerals 73
Other Mineral Groups 74 5
Mineral Identification 75
Luster and Color 75
Crystal Form 75
Cleavage and Fracture 75 Volcanoes and Volcanism
111
Hardness 76
Specific Gravity (Density) 76 Introduction 112
Other Useful Mineral Properties 77 Volcanoes and Volcanism 113
Rock-Forming Minerals 77 Volcanic Gases 114
How Do Minerals Form? 78 Lava Flows 115
Pyroclastic Materials 115
Economic Geology 79
Geo-FocuS: Do Volcanic Gases Cause
Geo-FocuS: The Industrial Minerals 80
Ozone Depletion? 116
Geo-impact: Investing in Natural Resources 83
Types of Volcanoes 119
Shield Volcanoes 120
Cinder Cones 122
4 Composite Volcanoes (Stratovolcanoes) 122
Lava Domes 124
Supervolcano Eruptions 126
Other Volcanic Landforms 126
Igneous Rocks and Plutons
87 Fissure Eruptions and Basalt Plateaus 126
Pyroclastic Sheet Deposits 126
Introduction 88
Volcano Belts 127
The Properties and Behavior of Magma
and Lava 88 Geo-impact: Classification and History of Igneous
Rocks 127
Composition of Magma 89
How Hot Are Magma and Lava? 89 North America’s Active Volcanoes 128
Viscosity—Resistance to Flow 89 Alaska’s Volcanoes 128
How Does Magma Originate and Change? 90 Geo-impact: Cascade Range Volcanoes 129
Bowen’s Reaction Series 90 The Cascade Range 129
Geo-impact: Teaching About Magma Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes, and
and Lava 91 Plutons 129
The Origin of Magma at Spreading Ridges 92 Igneous Activity at Divergent Plate
Subduction Zones and the Origin Boundaries 129
of Magma 92 Igneous Activity at Convergent Plate
Hot Spots and the Origin of Magma 93 Boundaries 130
Compositional Changes in Magma 93 Intraplate Volcanism 131
Igneous Rocks—Their Characteristics and Volcanic Hazards, Volcano Monitoring,
Classification 95 and Forecasting Eruptions 131
Igneous Rock Textures 95 How Large Is an Eruption, and How Long
Composition of Igneous Rocks 96 Do Eruptions Last? 132
Classifying Igneous Rocks 96 Is It Possible to Forecast Eruptions? 132
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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vi Contents
Geo-iNSiGHt: Fossilization 172
6
Determining the Environment of Deposition 174
Geo-impact: Sedimentary Rocks and Earth History 174
Geo-FocuS: State Fossils 175
Weathering, Erosion, and Soil
137 Sedimentary Rocks and Economic Geology 176
Introduction 138 Coal 176
Petroleum and Natural Gas 176
Alteration of Minerals and Rocks 139
Uranium 177
Mechanical Weathering—Disaggregation of Earth
Banded Iron Formation 177
Materials 139
Frost Action 139
Pressure Release 140
Thermal Expansion and Contraction 140 8
Growth of Salt Crystals 140
Activities of Organisms 140
Chemical Weathering—Decomposition of
Earth Materials 141 Metamorphism and
Solution 141
Metamorphic Rocks
181
Geo-FocuS: Industrialization and Acid Rain 142
Oxidation 144 Introduction 182
Hydrolysis 145 Geo-impact: Asbestos and Public Policy 183
Soil and Its Origin 146 The Agents of Metamorphism 183
The Soil Profile 147 Heat 183
Factors That Control Soil Formation 148 Pressure 183
Expansive Soils and Soil Degradation 150 Geo-FocuS: Asbestos: Good or Bad? 184
Expansive Soils 150
Fluid Activity 185
Soil Degradation 152
The Three Types of Metamorphism 186
Geo-impact: Expansive Soils 153
Contact Metamorphism 186
Weathering and Resources 154 Dynamic Metamorphism 188
Regional Metamorphism 188
Index Minerals and Metamorphic Grade 188
How Are Metamorphic Rocks Classified? 189
7
Foliated Metamorphic Rocks 189
Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks 192
Geo-impact: Marble as a Building Stone 194
Sediment and Sedimentary Metamorphic Zones and Facies 194
Rocks Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism 195
159
Metamorphism and Natural Resources 196
Introduction 160
Sediment Sources, Transport, and
Deposition 160 9
How Does Sediment Become Sedimentary
Rock? 161
Types of Sedimentary Rocks 162
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 162
Earthquakes and
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary
Rocks 164 Earth’s Interior
201
Sedimentary Facies 167
Introduction 202
Sedimentary Rocks—The Archives
of Earth History 167 Elastic Rebound Theory 203
Sedimentary Structures 169 Seismology 204
Fossils—Remains and Traces of The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake 204
Ancient Life 171 Where Do Earthquakes Occur, and How Often? 205
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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Contents vii
Seismic Waves 207 Deformation and the Origin of Mountains 244
Body Waves 208 Mountain Building 245
Surface Waves 208 Geo-FocuS: Engineering and Geology 246
Locating an Earthquake 208 Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building 247
Measuring the Strength of an Earthquake 209 Terranes and the Origin of Mountains 251
Intensity 210 Earth’s Crust 252
Magnitude 213 Principle of Isostasy 252
What Are the Destructive Effects of Isostatic Rebound 253
Earthquakes? 214
Ground Shaking 214
Fire 215
Tsunami: Killer Waves 215 11
Geo-iNSiGHt: Designing and Building
Earthquake-Resistant Structures 216
Ground Failure 218
Earthquake Prediction 220 Mass Wasting
257
Earthquake Precursors 220
Introduction 258
Geo-FocuS: Paleoseismology 222
Factors That Influence Mass Wasting 258
Earthquake Prediction Programs 222
Slope Angle 259
Earthquake Control 224
Weathering and Climate 259
Geo-impact: Reducing the Threat of Earthquakes 225
Water Content 261
What Is Earth’s Interior Like? 226 Vegetation 261
The Core 228 Overloading 261
Density and Composition of the Core 228 Geology and Slope Stability 262
Earth’s Mantle 229 Triggering Mechanisms 262
The Mantle’s Structure, Density, and Types of Mass Wasting 263
Composition 229 Falls 263
Seismic Tomography 230 Slides 264
Earth’s Internal Heat 230 Geo-FocuS: Southern California Landslides 266
Earth’s Crust 230 Geo-impact: Building Along a Hilly Coastline 269
Flows 270
Complex Movements 274
10
Recognizing and Minimizing the Effects of Mass
Wasting 276
Deformation, Mountain Building, 12
and Earth’s Crust
235
Introduction 236
Rock Deformation—How Does It Occur? 236 Running Water—Streams
Stress and Strain 236
and Rivers
Types of Strain 237 283
Strike and Dip—The Orientation of Deformed Introduction 284
Rock Layers 238
Water on Earth 284
Geo-impact: Stress, Strain, and Deformation 238 The Hydrologic Cycle 285
Deformation and Geologic Structures 238 Fluid Flow 285
Folded Rock Layers 239 Running Water 286
Joints 241 Sheet Flow and Channel Flow 286
Faults 243 Gradient, Velocity, and Discharge 286
Geo-impact: Geologic Maps and Land Use Running Water, Erosion, and Sediment
Planning 244 Transport 288
Copyright 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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viii Contents
Deposition by Running Water 288 Hydrothermal Activity 329
Deposits of Braided and Meandering Rivers and Hot Springs 329
Streams 289 Geysers 331
Geo-impact: Zoning Regulations and River Erosion 290 Geothermal Energy 332
Floodplain Deposits 291
Deltas 292
Alluvial Fans 292
14
Can Floods Be Predicted and Controlled? 293
Geo-FocuS: The Mississippi River Delta—Past
and Present 294
Glaciers and Glaciation 337
Geo-iNSiGHt: The Mississippi River System Floods
of 1993 and 2011 296
Introduction 338
Geo-impact: Sand and Gravel as Natural
The Kinds of Glaciers 338
Resources 299
Valley Glaciers 338
Drainage Systems 299 Continental Glaciers 339
The Significance of Base Level 300 Glaciers—Moving Bodies of Ice on Land 339
What Is a Graded Stream? 301
Geo-iNSiGHt: The Little Ice Age 340
The Evolution of Valleys 302
Glaciers—Part of the Hydrologic Cycle 342
Incised Meanders 304
How Do Glaciers Originate and Move? 342
Superposed Streams 305
Geo-impact: Ice: A Solid That Flows 343
Water as a Natural Resource 305
Distribution of Glaciers 343
The Glacial Budget 344
How Fast Do Glaciers Move? 345
13 Geo-FocuS: Glaciers and Global Warming 346
Erosion and Sediment Transport by Glaciers 348
Geo-impact: Glaciers and Global Warming 349
Groundwater Erosion by Valley Glaciers 350
309
Continental Glaciers and Erosional
Introduction 310 Landforms 353
Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle 310 Glacial Deposits 353
Porosity and Permeability 310 Landforms Composed of Till 355
The Water Table 311 Landforms Composed of Stratified Drift 355
Glacial Lake Deposits 356
Groundwater Movement 312
What Causes Ice Ages? 358
Springs, Water Wells, and Artesian Systems 312
The Milankovitch Theory 358
Springs 313
Short-Term Climatic Events 359
Water Wells 313
Artesian Systems 314
Groundwater Erosion and Deposition 315
Sinkholes and Karst Topography 316
15
Caves and Cave Deposits 317
Modification of the Groundwater System and Its
Effects 318
Lowering the Water Table 318 The Work of Wind
Geo-FocuS: Hydraulic Fracturing: Pros and Cons 320
and Deserts
363
Saltwater Incursion 322
Subsidence 323 Introduction 364
Groundwater Contamination 324 Sediment Transport by Wind 364
Groundwater Quality 325 Bed Load 364
Geo-iNSiGHt: Arsenic and Old Lace 326 Geo-impact: What Can Be Done with Nuclear
Geo-impact: Building an Environmentally Friendly Waste? 365
Landfill 328 Suspended Load 365
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