The Alhambra

32 Pages·2017·9.36 MB·English

arts
Article
The Alhambra: Transformation and Change through
Architectural Ceramics
MaríaElenaDíezJorge1,* ,IgnacioBarreraMaturana2andNievesJiménezDíaz2
1 DepartmentofArthistory,UniversityofGranada,18071Granada,Spain
2 IndependentScholar,18071Granada,Spain;[email protected](I.B.M.);
[email protected](N.J.D.)
* Correspondence:[email protected]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
Received:25September2018;Accepted:5November2018;Published:12November2018 (cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Abstract:Inthefollowingpaper,welookattheAlhambrafromaperspectiveofarchitecturalceramics,
anessentialelementintheunderstandingofthemonument. FromtheNasrideraonward,glazed
ceramictilemosaicswereusedtoadornthewalls,astylethatextendedintotheChristianconquest,
whenthepalacecomplexwasusedasaroyalresidence. Sincethen,restorationworkhascontinued
tobecarriedoutonthealicatadosthatcovertheAlhambra’swalls,especiallyduringanintenseperiod
inthe19thcentury,whenitwasthesubjectofmuchinterestfromRomantictravellerstoGranada.
Adetailed,documentedanalysisofthisworkshowsthecomplexityofthepalaceandfortresscomplex,
helpingustobetterunderstandapartofitshistory. Inthefollowingpages,wespecificallyfocuson
oneroomintheAlhambra,theso-calledCuartoDorado(GoldenRoom),outliningthepreliminary
findingsofaresearchprojectthatweareundertakinginassociationwiththeUniversityofGranada
andthePatronatodelaAlhambrayelGeneralife(CounciloftheAlhambraandtheGeneralife).
Keywords: Alhambra;CuartoDorado;architecturalceramics;restoration
1. Introduction
ConstructionoftheAlhambramonumentalcomplexinGranadabeganduringtheNasriddynasty
(1232–1492), once the city was conquered in 1237. During the more than three hundred years of
al-Andalusrule,thepalace-fortresswasextendedandrenovated. After1492,buildingworkdidnot
ceasewiththeChristianconquest,asmanyofthecomplex’sinfrastructuresweremaintained,albeit
beingadaptedtotheirnewneedsanduses.
The Alhambra provides us with a vast repertoire of building types, most of which feature
painstakingly-detailedglazedceramicworkonthecarvedormouldeddadoes,chiselledormoulded
plasterwallcoverings,andpolychrome,eithermagnificentormoresimpleceilings. Ofthesethree
elements,thisstudyfocusesmainlyonthearchitecturalceramics,astheyareclearlyaninherentpartof
theNasridAlhambra.However,itwouldbeunwisetothinkthattheceramicmosaicpanelsoralicatados
thatcurrentlyoffersuchcolourfuladornmenttoNasridpalacesallcomefromthetimeofal-Andalus.
Replacement work carried out immediately after the Christian conquest, the introduction of new
emblemsandsymbols,adaptationstonewuses,andrestorationworktorecoveranimagethatismore
originallyIslamichaveallmeantthatthesepieceshaveundergonesignificantintervention. Thestudy
oftheAlhambra’sarchitecturalceramicsisthereforeextremelycomplex,requiringtheconsultationof
numeroussources. Nevertheless,itaffordsusagreaterunderstandingofthepalace-fortressasitgives
usthechancetobetterappreciateitsmanyvicissitudes,itssuccessesandfailures,whichhaveledto
theAlhambraweknowtoday.
Fullyawareofthisimportance,in2016,thePatronatodelaAlhambrayGeneralife(Councilof
theAlhambraandtheGeneralife)enteredintoanagreementwiththeUniversityofGranadaentitled
Arts2018,7,79;doi:10.3390/arts7040079 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts
Arts2018,7,79 2of32
“The Alhambra’s Architectural Ceramics”. Its basis was the recognition that this form of artistic
expressionhasundergonemanychangesovertime. Forthisreason,detailedresearchwasneededinto
alargepartofthismaterial,whichtodaycanbeseeninthearchitectureofthemonumentalcomplex
aswellasintheAlhambraMuseum’scollections. Thestudyofthismaterialinvolvestherecoveryof
alltheinformationfromthearchive,whichbecomesessentialtoensuringthesuccessoftheresearch
anditisundertakenrigorouslyandthoroughly. Thisaspectwastheaimofthesignedagreement,
thelaunchoftheAlhambra’sarchitecturalceramicsdocumentarycorpus.
Thecorpusissystematisedviaasimpledatabasethatneverthelessincludescompletearchival,
bibliographical,andimagereferences. Asfarasthebibliographyisconcerned,itincludesbothclassical
and general works and more recent articles and books that deal specifically with the Alhambra’s
architecturalceramics,offeringnewresearchperspectives. Wehavetakeninformationfromanumber
of works, above all from books on the subject, regarding the descriptions of the areas referred to,
facilitatingbibliographicsearchesonthecurrentinformationthatisavailableregardingspecificparts
ofthepalace-fortresscomplex.
As far as the images were concerned, most came from the Council of the Alhambra and the
GeneralifeArchive’svariousdigitalcollections,aswellastheCouncil’slibrary. Themostimportant
criterionwastheageoftheimage,althoughthegreatestpossiblesharpnesswasalsosoughtinorder
tobetterappreciatethevariousceramicelements. Asfaraspossible,wehaveavoidedtherepetition
ofimagesshowingsimilarviewsofthesamesceneandwhichdonotprovideanynewinformation.
Wewereinterestedinimagesthatshowedspacesthatallowedustoanalysechangestothearchitectural
ceramics,insuchawaythat,forinstance,inonewemightseeceramicelementswithgapsinthedesign,
whileinanother,thesehavebeenfilledinwithreplacementpieces,oralsoquitetheopposite,since
bothtypesofexamplescanbeseenintheAlhambra. Wedidnotdisregardanyimage,fromtheoldest
photographstothemostrecent,frompaintingsandengravingsfromvariousperiodstodrawingsand
plansofbothgroundlayoutsandfrontelevationsshowingdadoes.
Withregardtothedocumentdatabase,itcontainscopiesofcontractsandreportsfortherestoration
ofarchitecturalceramicelementsinanumberofareasofthecomplex. Tothisend,weconsultedthe
archivesofthePatronatodelaAlhambrayGeneralifeandspecificallyitscollectionfromtheFondo
delPatronatodelaJuntadeAndalucía. Wearealsocarefullytranscribingandanalysinghundredsof
filesfromtheaforesaidarchive,whichgiveanexcellentaccountoftheAlhambra’shistorysincethe
16thcentury,extractingthemostinterestinginformationandmakingabriefsummarythathighlights
theessenceofeachofthesedocuments.
There is much still to be done. In the future, we hope to be able to draw up a “map” of the
Alhambra’sarchitecturalceramicpiecesthatissoundintermsofitsoriginalityandchronology.
2. TheAlhambraasaPalatineCity
TheAlhambrawasoriginallyaNasridpalatinecity. Itwasthecentreofpowerandresidenceof
thesultanswhomadeGranadathecapitalofwhatwasthencalledReinodeGranada. Theartthat
wasproducedduringtheNasridperioddatesprincipallyfrom1237to1492,correspondingtothe
yearsoftheoccupationandabandonmentofGranada. InordertounderstandNasridart,onehas
to study Granada as a city and its architecture. However, this is not the only area to be analysed,
asthedynasty’sartextendedtotheregionofMurcia,toAlmeríaandtoMálaga,reachingtheStraitof
GibraltaranditsstrategicallyimportantenclavesofAlgecirasandTarifa(Figure1).
TheAlhambraofthe13thcenturywasverydifferenttothatofthefirsthalfofthe14thcentury
andtheearly15thcentury. Spaceschangedwiththenewbuildingworkthateachsultanwantedto
undertakeinordertoleavehisindeliblemarkonhistory(DíezJorgeetal.2006,pp. 20–32). Aboveall,
theAlhambrawasacityandtheexperienceoflivingwithinitwasassuch. Thiswasacitybuiltfor
power,fortheroyalfamily,andtheirwholeentourage. Itrequiredtheprovisionofawiderangeof
domesticservicesandworkshops.
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Figure1. TheAhambraonSabikahill,thevisiblemanifestationofpower,risingstrategicallyand
symbolicallyabovethecity.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2014.
TheAlhambraisseenasthepinnacleofNasridart. Itsbeautyandsplendourwerepraisedby
boththeMuslimsandChristianswhoseteyesuponit. OneoftheAlhambra’spoets,Ibnal-Yayyab,
madespecialmentionofitsfineplasterwork,ceramictilemosaics,andceilings(RubieraMata1982,
pp. 112, 114) (Figure 2). This widespread admiration has been maintained over time, this is
particularlythecasewithRomantictravellers(ondifferenttravellersandtheirvisionoftheAlhambra,
seeGaleraAndreu1992).Itistruethatnineteenth-centuryhistoriographytooktheviewthatNasrid
art lacked balance and characterised some of it as being chaotic and extravagant, full of fantasy,
caprice,andseduction,andessentiallydesignedtosatisfythecorporalpleasuresofadecrepitcourt.
The Alhambra was described at that time in some sources as an immense pleasure centre, with
its gardens and running water, and the folly and despotism of its corrupt rulers in the harem.
The role of the palatine city was identified more than political activities with incessant galas and
balls,andyettheselearnedtravelersneverthelessbroughttheAlhambratolight,holdingitingreat
esteem(DíezJorge2005).
Figure2.ArabsourcesfromtheNasridperiodalreadyhighlightedthequalityofworkofthemaster
craftsmeninthealicatadosandplasterwork.PlasterworkandalicatadosintheLindarajabalcony,Palace
oftheLions.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2014.
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Intraditionalhistoriography,Nasridartwasseenasthebeginningofadeclineofal-Andalusart,
astheongoingvassalagetoCastilerepresentedtheendoftheindependencethathadcharacterised
periods,suchasthatoftheUmayyadCaliphateinCórdoba.Obviously,notalloftheNasridperiodwas
oneofcontinuousdecline. ThemoststableperiodscameduringtimesofpeacewithCastileduringthe
ruleofYusufI(from1333to1354)andMuhammadV,atimethatalsosawtheheightofNasridartistic
splendour,materialisingintheAlhambra’sComaresPalaceandthePalaceoftheLions. Thiswasalso
aperiodinwhichtheexportofglazedceramicsgrew,asdidtheprestigioussilkindustry(seeFigure3).
Ontheotherhand,the15thcenturyhighlightedthedecadenceandartistictwilightoftheNasrids,
inwhichtheheightofabandonmentcoincidedwiththeruleofBoabdilin1482andfrom1487to1492.
Perhapsthiscontrastofaperiodofsplendourfollowedbyoneofdecadence,whilenonethelessreal
toagreaterorlesserextent,hasbeenexaggerated,basedaboveallonthechronologyandattributes
assigned to certain parts to the Alhambra. The reality was somewhat more complex. Although a
morestablepoliticalpanoramaobviouslycontributedtowardgreaterartisticproduction,whichwas
probably,incontrast,drasticallyreducedduetothelackofmoneyinsubsequenttimesofcrisis;itis
alsotruetosaythatcreativityandimaginationdonotalwaysdependontheprevailingeconomic
situation. WithoutforgettingthemagnificentAlhambrapalacesbuiltbyYusufIandMuhammadV
inthe14thcentury,therewerealsoimportantcontributionsmadeatothertimes: thePartal,afine
example of open architecture because it includes a portico with balconies that have views to the
riverDarroandSanPedroandAlbaicínquarters,aswellasacoveredbalconythatisaccessedfrom
astaircase(formoreinformationaboutthispalace, seeOrihuelaUzal1996, pp. 57–70)andthatis
attributedtoMuhammadIII(1302–1309)atatimeofuneasiness, withtheAlhambrasurvivingan
internalcoup,andproblemswiththeMarinids;orthesumptuousTowerofthePrincesses(Torredelas
Infantas),builtundertheruleofMuhammadVII(1392–1408)intheearly15thcentury(seeFigure4).
Such works should cause us to question this idea that Nasrid art was uninventive and repetitive,
relyingtooheavilyonal-Andalus’spastasithasalsobeenprovedwithotherculturalaspectsfromthe
Nasridperiod,suchaspoetry(PuertaVílchez2000).
Figure3.Therewereperiodsofarchitecturalsplendourmanifestintheuniquenessofcreationssuchas
theComaresHall.Detailofoneofthealcoba(intheAndalusiarchitecture,thisisalateralroomwhich
isconnectedbyanarchtothemainhall)intheComaresHall,completelycoveredbyalicatadosand
plasterwork,14thcentury.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2018.
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Figure4. InterioroftheTowerofthePrincesses,showingfineplasterworkandalicatadosfromthe
reign of Muhammad VII (1392–1408), considered historiographically to be a period of decadence.
©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2014.
Admitting Nasrid art’s original forms does not mean that we ignore the imitation of earlier
models,norisitcontradictorytorecogniseartisticmulticulturality. Architecturallyandartistically,
this diversity has not been jointly analysed, although scattered data in a great deal of the existing
researchconstantlypointtothisbeingthepossibleresultoftheinfluenceofChristiankingdomsinthe
waythatthePartalpalaceopenstotheoutside,inthecloister-likeformsoftheCourtoftheLions(Patio
delosLeones),andinthepaintingsintheKings’Hall(SaladelosReyes),whichhavebeenthesource
ofsomanyfascinatinghypothesesregardingculturalrelationsatthetime(RobinsonandPinet2008).
Havingsaidthis,weshouldbearinmindthataswewalkthroughtheAlhambratoday,notallwe
seeisNasrid. Specialistshavetoattemptedtodiscerntheprovenanceofthearchitecturalandstylistic
forms,aswellashighlightingthepresenceofinter-relationships,loans,andexchanges. Weshould
viewthevariousinterventionsandrepairsinsuchawaythatadmitsthefactthatatsomepointthere
mayhavebeenmisinterpretationsofhowthingswereduringtheNasridperiod,orattemptstogive
theworkwhatwasregardedasa“moreIslamic”air. Onetimeofunquestionableimportancewasright
aftertheconquestoftheAlhambrabytheCatholicMonarchsin1492,astheChristianforcesdecided
tomaintainthecomplexasapalatinecity. ThesiteoftheAlhambramakesitavisualandsymbolic
pointofreference,aswellasinspiringtheadmirationandrespectoftheCatholicMonarchsforthis
place(DíezJorge1998). Oneelementonwhichtherepairsandinterventionswerewell-documented
fromtheoutsetaretheglazedceramictilesorthealicatados(seeFigure5).
Figure5.Fromtheoutset,therearerecordsofrepairs,retouchingandotherinterventionsontheglazed
ceramics,especiallythealicatados,asinthecaseofthisdadointheMexuar,whichfeaturesthePlus
UltrasymbolfromthetimesofCharlesV.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2018.
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3. TheAlhambra’sArchitecturalCeramics
Within this world of splendour without which it is impossible to understand the Alhambra,
architecturalceramicsplayedafundamentalrole. Fabricsandcarpetsinvividcolours,polychrome
plasterwork,goldandblueceilings,objectsrepletewithmetallicreflections,and,everywhere,brightly
colouredshiningglazedpiecesthatwereusedfromthefloortotherafters.
Floorscombinedterracottatileswithsmallglazedpiecesknownasolambrillas.Floorsalsofeatured
almatrayas,aseriesofglazedceramicpieceswhichgenerallyformedarectanglebeforethemaindoor
to a house or other rooms therein. The Alhambra still has the remains of these Nasrid almatrayas
combinedwithterracottatiles,althoughsometimestheglazedceramicpiecesaremissing,asisthe
casewiththehousesalongsidetheGateoftheSevenFloors(PuertadelosSieteSuelos,seeFigure6).
However, the Alhambra, as a royal seat and centre of power, had a flooring that is rarely found
elsewhere,duetoitscostandthetechniquesinvolved,suchastheceramictiles,whicharecurrentlyon
displayattheAlhambraMuseum,featuringfigurativeelementsdatedasbeingfromthe14thcentury
andthatseemtohavebeenusedintheQueen’sDressingRoomtower(TorredelPeinadordelaReina)
andtheAlijaresPalace. SimilarpiecesfromtheAlhambracanbefoundinothercollections,suchas
thatpertainingtotheInstitutoValenciadeDonJuan(NebredaMartín2016,p. 530etseq.),whichalso
includesaceramicpanelknownastheFortunytilewhichsomeresearchersclaimwasfoundinahouse
ontheAceradelDarro(NebredaMartín2016,p. 565)andthatisusuallyinterpretedasbeingfrom
thebaseofadoorframe(MarinettoSánchez2000b). Dadoesandcolumnbasesalsofeatureglazed
ceramics,givingtheimpressionthatsomepartsoftheAlhambrawerecoveredinbrightcolourful
glasscarpets.
Figure6.ReconstructedalmatrayafromtheNasridperiodwithmissingglazedceramicpiecesfromone
ofthehousesalongsidetheGateoftheSevenFloors(PuertadelosSieteSuelos).©MaríaElenaDíez
Jorge,2017.
Onthewalls,theglazedceramicmosaicsappearinthedadoes,theoftendecoratedbottomthirdof
thewalls,withawiderangeoftechniquesanddesignsused. Traditionally,duringthedifferentphases
ofAndalusiart,dadoesreceivedalotofattention,andnotonlyinpalaces,butalsoinmorehumble
abodes,withtheirsimplegeometricmotifsorbeautifullyintricatedesignsfeaturingintertwinedloops
andplantelements(GarcíaGranados2014). TheAlhambraalsofeaturespainteddadoesfromthe
Nasridera,suchasthoseintheCourtoftheHarem(PatiodelHarén)inthePalaceoftheLions,orin
thelatrineneartheHalloftheBoat(SaladelaBarca)intheComaresPalace(seeFigure7). However,
undoubtedly, it was the glazed ceramic mosaic tiles, especially the alicatados, which were used in
the most formal of rooms, as in the 14th century this was an expensive technique that, in general,
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althoughnotalways,wasreservedformoreostentatiousplaces. Somecolumnsappearcoveredin
alicatadopieces,makingrealwhathadseemedimpossible,giventhatitmeanthavingtocutthepieces
tofitacurvedsurface(seeFigure8). Asfarasweareconcerned,forthespecificcaseofal-Andalus,
we have only seen this type of alicatado on a curved surface in the Alhambra, although this does
notmeanthattherewerenotanyotheronesthatwecouldeventuallyfind. Therearecapitalsmade
fromglazedceramicsthatevidentlycouldnotwithstandheavyloadsastheywerehollow,andwhich
playedamoredecorativerole. Someofthesecapitalshavebecomewell-knownthroughpublications
(MarinettoSánchez2000a),althoughtheAlhambraMuseum’scollectionhasotherexamplesthatwe
havebeenabletosee,someofwhichareverysmallfragmentsofunknownorigin(AlhambraMuseum,
refs. 3815and105558). However,theyspeaktousoftheAlhambrainaverydifferentwaytohowwe
seethecomplextoday,as,ingeneral,thesepiecescannotbeseeninsitu.
Figure7.PainteddadoesfromtheNasridperiodfromthewesternsideofthelatrineintheHallofthe
Boat(SaladelaBarca)intheComaresPalace.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2017.
Figure 8. Columns faced with alicatado pieces, cut in a curve. Comares Palace, 14th century.
©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2018.
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TherearemorepiecesintheAlhambraMuseumcollection,suchastheglazedceramiclatticework
(MarinettoSánchez2000b),whileothersarestillvisibletoanyvisitor,suchasthesebkapanelsonthe
JusticeGate(PuertadelaJusticia)orthecuerdaseca1onthespandrelsoneithersideofthearchofthe
WineGate(PuertadelVino)(seeFigure9). Wecanalsomentionthetiledroofsthatcouldcombine
various colours or the vaulted arches of the Nasrid baths, whose skylights are made from glazed
ceramic. ThevaultedarchesoftheComaresbathshaverecentlybeenrestoredbythearchitectPedro
Salmerón(betweenOctober2014andJuly2017),whiletheceramicskylights,amongotherpieces,have
beenreturnedtotheirformerglorybytherestorersMaríaDoloresBlancaLópezandLourdesBlanca
López. Nonetheless,thesearenottheonlyglazedceramicskylightsintheAlhambra,asothershave
beenconservedthatarealmostcomplete(AlhambraMuseum,ref. 86807)orinfragments(ref. 124440,
ref. 124441,ref. 124442,ref. 124444,ref. 12448,ref. 124450,ref. 80200,ref. 87877,ref. 87881,ref. 87882,
ref. 87904,ref. 81906,ref. 87911,ref. 87913,ref. 87915,ref. 87916,ref. 87917,ref. 87918,ref. 87931,
ref.87886,ref. 87897,ref. 97927,andref. 91243). TheycomefromthebathsatthecurrentParadorde
SanFranciscohotel,aformerNasridpalace,whileothersareofunknownorigin(seeFigure10).
Figure9.CuerdasecaceramicsonthespandrelsattheWineGate(PuertadelVino).©MaríaElenaDíez
Jorge,2014.
Figure10.RemainsofvariousskylightsfromtheNasridbathsintheAlhambra,nowintheAlhambra
Museum.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2017.
1 Themostfrequentcuerdasecatechniqueismainlybasedindrawingthecontoursofthemotifwithamixtureofgreaseand
manganese,whichpreventsthecoloursfrommixingwhentheyaremeltedinthefurnace.
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TheuseofarchitecturalceramicsintheIslamicworldiswideandvariedintermsofthetechniques,
materialsandcoloursused(DegeorgeandPorter2001). InthecaseofNasridarchitecture,inthemain
areasreservedforthenobility,itisworthmentioningtheuseofalicatadosonthedadoes. Traditionally
ithasbeensaidthatalicatados(zillijorzellijinArabic)couldalreadybefoundintheMaghreband
al-Andalusinthe12thand13thcenturies,ascanstillbeseen,forexample,inMarrakech,bothonthe
Kutubbiyahminaret,whichusesturquoisegreenandwhitetiling,andintheqasba(Benassa1992).
Previously,forexample,duringtheUmayyadCaliphate,tesseraandopussectileweremorecommonly
usedinplaceofalicatados. Thebestknownuseofthealicatadotechniqueflourishedinthelate13thand
early14thcenturies,appearingsimultaneouslyinanumberofregions,includingGranada. Thevariety
oftheworkintheAlhambrahasbeenstudiedatlengthbyanumberofacademicswhohaveanalysed
ingreatdepththecomplexdesignsandnarrativesthatcanbefoundthere(PérezGómezetal.2007;
GarcíaGranados2014;MartínezVela2017),aswellasthewiderangeofcoloursused(Bush2011),
althoughanaccuratechronologyofthemhasyettobemade. Inthecaseofthealicatadoworks,and
dependingonthedesigninquestion,acraftsmanwouldcutthepieces(Figure11)fromafiredand
glazedmonochromesheetandplacethemfacedownalmostlikeajigsawpuzzle,whichisbasedon
thedesignandthecolourused. Theindividualelementsweresetintoapanelwithmortarandthen
thepanelwasattachedtothewallwiththemortaraswell.
Figure11.Thefront(a)andreverse(b)ofalicatadopiecesofunknownorigin.©Privatecollection.
Nevertheless,aswehavepreviouslymentioned,othertechniqueswerealsoused. Amongthese
is that of incrustación, which is very specific to the Alhambra (Sánchez Gómez et al. 2018), which
consistedofproducingglazedtilesthatwerethenencrustedintotheseotherglazedceramicpieces.
The technique of alicatado continued to be used, with certain variations, after the Christian
conquest, making the study of architectural ceramics in the Alhambra all the more complex and
rewarding. SomeexamplesofthisworkcanbeseenattheArchitecturalCeramicsexhibitionatthe
AlhambraMuseum,whichopenedon18May2018andwillrununtil21April2019.
SincetheChristianconquest,therehavebeenanumberorrepairstoandotherinterventionon
theNasridpieces,aswellasnewadditions. Someareeasilyrecognisable,astheyemploytechniques
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such as those used on the cuenca or arista2 tiles that were more common in the late 15th century,
and, above all, in the 16th century; or else because they use motifs from the 16th century onward
(seeFigure12). However,inothercases,itisdifficulttosituatethemchronologically. Itisthisaspect
thathas,inpart,beenthemotivationforthisproject. OneoftheAlhambra’smostvulnerableareas
hasalwaysbeenitsalicatados,asvariouspieceshavebeenreplacedwithoutareliablestudyoftheir
chronology. ThishasmeantthatitisnotunusualtofindNasridmosaictilesmixedwithlaterpieces,
theresultofrepairsmadenotonlylongago,butalsomorerecently. Fortunately,inthepresentday,
interventions are more carefully controlled. This complexity can clearly be seen in the case of the
numerous repairs and other interventions that have been made to the Comares baths throughout
history(DíezJorge2007).Nonetheless,itisalsoevidentinotherpieces,suchassomeoftherepairs
madetotheMexuar(SánchezGómezetal.2018).
Figure12.DetailofalicatadosintheComaresBaths,builtinthe14thcentury,althoughfeaturingsome
ceramicpiecesfromthe16thcenturywhichareclearlyvisibleinthearistatilesfromthisperiodbearing
theinitialsofPlusUltra.©MaríaElenaDíezJorge,2014.
Asaresult,whatwefindtodayintheAlhambraisNasridalicatadopanelsthathavebeenaltered
sincetheChristianconquest,piecesfromthe16thcenturymixedwithothersfromtheNasridperiod,
19thcenturyinterventionsthathaveinventednewdesignsandthereplacementofpieceswiththesole
criterionthatthegapsshouldnotbevisibletovisitors. Acomplexsituation,inotherwords.
It should be remembered that, after the Christian conquest, architectural ceramics were used
in numerous buildings in the Kingdom of Granada. This was not only the case in the Alhambra,
whichpassedintothehandsoftheChristianroyalhousehold,butalsoinnumerousotherinstances
throughoutthecity,inthechurchesandothercivilbuildingsinwhichmainlyaristatilesandolambrillas
wereusedinthefloors, onthelandingsonstaircases, dadoesinhallwaysandotherrooms, altars,
bell towers, and so on. In the case of the Alhambra, the problem is discerning between work
from the Nasrid and the Christian periods, as very often Nasrid pieces were reused or copied
(Gómez-MorenoCalera2000).
Basedonover1300documentsthatwehaveconsultedtodate,theprocedurefollowedthroughout
the16thand17thcenturiestendedtobethatwhentheAlhambra’sroyalworksneededmaterials,
2 Inthistechnique,thedecorationisprintedwithametalorwoodenmatrixonrawceramics,sothattheresultingedges
becomethecontoursofthemotifandpreventthedifferentcoloursfrombeingmixedinthefurnace.