The Advisory Function of the International Court of Justice

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by  Jenny Delasalle

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A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick

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The Advisory Function of the International Court of Justice
(1946.2004)
by
Mahasen Aljaghoub
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy in Law
University of Warwick, School of Law
January 2005
Dedication
This thesis is dedicated to my husband, Munther, for all his love, support and
encouragement. He has always been my inspiration, my great mentor and my best
friend in the whole world. With him by my side I have found all that I ever wanted.
11
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements ............................................................................ ix
Dec [aralio n ..................................................................................... xi
tl17strtlct .......................................................................................... ;rii
List ofA bbreviations .......................................................................... xiii
Glossary of Terms ............................................................................. xvi
Table of Cases .................................................................................. xviii
Table of Treaties ................................................................................ xx
Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
Chapter One
The Advisory Function of the International Court of Justice in an Historical Context
1. Introduction .................................................................... .... 15
2. Advisory Opinions in General................................................. 16
3. The Advisory Function Prior to the Inception of International Courts.... 19
4. The Advisory Function and the Permanent Court of International
Justice .............................................................................. 20
4.1 The Advisory Function at the Drafting Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .... 21
4.2 The PCU Advisory Opinions and the Nature of the Requests for
Advisory Opinions........................................................... 28
4.3 Sources of Requests for Advisory Opinions During the League Era... 29
4.4 Assimilation of the Advisory Procedure to the Contentious Procedure
before the PCU ................................................................. 30
4.5 Voting in the League Council and Assembly to Request Advisory
OpInIons ........................................................................ 31
5. The PCU and the IC]: Their Institutional Status ............ .......... ...... 32
6. The Advisory Function of the ICJ: How Much is it Changing? .......... 35
6.1 The Drafting Stage............................................................ 35
6.1.1 The Rights of the General Assembly and the Security Council
to Request an Advisory Opinion ............................................. 38
6.1.2 Proposals that were Not Adopted..................................... 40
7. Concluding Remarks ............................................................ 43
III
Chapter Two
The Advisory Jurisdiction of the ICJ: Compliance with Requests and the Court's
Discretion in Giving Advisory Opinions
1. Introduction..................................................................... 44
2. The Jurisdiction of the ICJ ...................................................... 45
2.1 Distinction Between Jurisdiction and Competence....................... 46
2.2 The Court's Competence de la Competence .............................. 47
3. The Elements of Jurisdiction to Give an Advisory Opinion............... 49
3.1 Jurisdiction ratione personae................................................ 50
3.1.1 Organs With an 'Original Right' to Request Advisory
Opinions: the General Assembly and the Security Council............. 51
3.1.2 Organs With a 'Derivative Right' to Request Advisory
Opinions: Other UN Organs and the Specialised Agencies ............ 57
3.2. Jurisdiction ratione materiae or Subject Matter Jurisdiction ............ 71
3.2.1 The Political Nature or Motivation of Questions Referred for
Advisory Opinions............................................................ 75
3.2.2 Factual Questions ...................................................... 78
3.2.3 Abstract Questions...... .................. .............................. 79
4. The Advisory Jurisdiction as Subject to the Court's Discretion........... 81
5. Concluding Remarks............................................................ 86
Chapter Three
The Role of the ICJ as the Principal Judicial Organ of the UN and its Implications
for the Court's Advisory Function
1. Introduction..................................................................... 88
2. Organisations in General: A Theoretical Perspective....................... 90
3. The United Nations Organisation.......................................... .... 91
4. Coordination: A Theoretical Perspective.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .... .. .. .. .. .. ... 93
5. The Organisational Relationship Between the IC] and the UN: Its
Implications for the Court's Readiness to Participate in the UN
Acti vi ties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
6. "Judicial Review" as a New Direction....................................... 102
6.1 The Complexities of "Judicial Review" .................................... 103
6.2 "Judicial review" Within the Coordination Context...................... 105
6.3 The Advisory Function as a Route for "Judicial Review": Some
Case Studies.................................................................... 109
6.3.1 The 1960IMCO Case................................................. 111
6.3.2 The 1962 Certain Expenses of the UN Case ...................... 112
6.3.3 The 1971 Namibia Case ............................................. " 113
6.3.4 The 1992 Lockerbie Case ............................................. 116
7. Concluding Remarks .......................................................... 119
IV
Chapter Four
The Judicial Character of the ICJ's Advisory Function and the Problem of Consent
1. Introduction..................................................................... 120
2. The Court as an Organ of the UN and the Nature of its Judicial
Character .......................................................................... 121
2.1 The Court's Judicial Character and States' Consent ...................... 123
2.1.1 Publicists' View of Consent as a Precondition for Exercising
Jurisdiction............................................................... 123
2.1.2 The Court's Case Law on Consent as a Precondition for
Exercising Jurisdiction.............................................. ... 126
2.2 Forum Prorogatum in Advisory Proceedings .............................. 140
3. Judicial and Political Restraints and the Judicial Function................. 142
4. The Judicial Character of the Court and its Effect on the Authority of
Advisory Opinions ......... ...... ............ ...... ........................ ...... 145
5. Concluding Remarks... ...... ...... ... ... ............ ......... ...... ...... ... ... 150
Chapter Five
Procedural Aspects of the Advisory Function of the ICJ
1. Introduction..................................................................... 151
2. Sources of the Procedural Rules Governing Advisory Proceedings...... 153
3. The Composition of the Court in Exercising its Advisory Function...... 154
3.1 National Judges and Judges Ad hoc in Advisory Cases.................. 155
3.2 Impartiality and Independence of Judges ................................... 159
4. The Process of Requesting an Advisory Opinion ......... ... .......... ... 163
4.1 Initiating the Request ........................................................ , 163
4.2 Participation in Advisory Proceedings ...................................... 166
4.3 The Role of the Secretary-General in Advisory Proceedings .. '" .. ..... 168
4.4 Written and Oral Proceedings................................................ 170
5. The Legal Bases Relied upon by the Court for Decision -
Making......................................................................... 177
5.1 Sources of the Applicable Law............................................. 177
5.1.1 International Conventions................................................ 179
5.1.2 International Custom...................................................... 181
5.1.3 General Principles of Law ................................................ 182
5.1.4 Judicial Decisions and the Teachings of the Most Highly
Qualified Publicists. . . .. . .. . ... . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . ... 183
5.1.5 Resolutions of the General Assembly as a Supplementary Source
of International Law? . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 187
5.2 Deliberation by the Court and the Giving of Advisory Opinions...... 190
6. Concluding Remarks.......................................................... 191
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Chapter Six
The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Development of the Law of
International Institutions and to Public International law
1. Introduction ... ......... ... ...... ...... ..... ..... ......... ........ ..... .... .... 192
2. Advisory Opinions and the Development of the Law of the United
Nations ...... ... ........ ....... ... ........ .... ............ ...... .... 193
2.1 The International Legal Personality of the United Nations............... 193
2.2 The Doctrine of Implied Powers ............................................. 196
2.3 Succession of International Organisations .................................. 198
3. The Contribution of ICJ Advisory Opinions to the Rules Governing
the Interpretation of Treaties.. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1 The Interpretative Function of the ICJ ....................................... 203
3.2 The Special Legal Position of the UN Charter...... ...... ...... ...... ..... 205
4. The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Interpretation and
Application of Agreements between the UN, its Agencies and
Member States ... ......... ... ... ............... ... ......... ...... ...... ... .... 214
4.1 The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Interpretation of the
Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the UN ............... 214
4.2 The Court's Interpretation of the Headquarters Agreement between
the UN and the US ............................................................. 219
. 5. The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Clarification of the
Functions and Powers of UN Political Organs............................ 220
5.1 Concurrent and Exclusive Functions of the General Assembly and of
the Security Council ........................................................... 221
5.1.1 Peace Keeping Operations: Concurrent Roles of the General
Assembly and of the Security Council. ...................................... 221
5.1.2 The Exclusive Competence of the Security Council to Take
Coercive Action................................... ............................. 225
5.1.3 The Exclusive Competence of the General. Assembly over the
UN's Budget ..................................................................... 226
5.2 The Joint Competence of the Political Organs............................. 228
6. The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Development of
International Human Rights Law......... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... 230
7. The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Development of
International Humanitarian Law............................................. 241
8. The Contribution of Advisory Opinions to the Development of
International Environmental Law.......................................... 245
9. Concluding Remarks .......................................................... 247
VI
Chapter Seven
The Attitude of United Nations Member States Towards the Use of the Advisory
Procedure
1. Introduction..................................................................... 248
2. Quantitative Significance ....................................................... 250
3. Historical Background, Preparatory work and Attitudes................... 251
4. The Role of Law and International Adjudication in International
Affairs .................. ...... ...... ......... ............ ............ .............. 253
5. Assessment of Frequently Cited Reasons for the Reluctance to Use the
Court .............................................................................. 255
5.1 International Law Applied by the Court is of Western Origins......... 256
5.2 The Court's Unpopular Judgments and Advisory Opinions ...... ....... 261
5.2.1 The 1966 South West Africa Second Phase case .................. 261
5.2.2 The 1996 Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in
Armed Conflicts Case ................................................... 264
5.3 The Risk of Losing and the Unpredictability of the Court's Decision.. 264
5.4 The Composition of the Court and the Impartiality of the Judges...... 266
5.5 The Slowness of the Judicial Procedure and the Cost of Litigation..... 269
6. Concluding Remarks. .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. .. . . .. . .. . .. ... . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . ... . . . 273
Chapter Eight
The Reception of Advisory Opinions
1. Introduction..................................................................... 274
2. The Possibility of Non-Compliance and its Effect on the Court's
Discretion to Render Advisory Opinions ........................ ...... ....... 275
3. Guidance as the Primary Motive for Requesting Advisory Opinions.... 277
4. The Interests which are Served by Compliance with Rendered Advisory
OpInIons ........................................................................... 279
5. Review of Actions Taken by Requesting Organs upon Rendered
Advisory Opinions...... .. . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .... 280
6. Concluding Remarks ............................................................ 292
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Chapter Conclusion
The Advisory Function of the ICJ: Concerns, Limitations and Future Role
1. Introduction ................................................................... 293
2. The Complexities of the Institutional Connection between the Court
and the United Nations..................................................... ... 295
3. The Usefulness of the Advisory Opinion to the United Nations ......... 298
4. Reasons for the Limited Recourse to Advisory Opinions ................ 305
4.1 Voting Procedure and Lack of Coordination........................ ... 305
4.2 The Autonomy of the Political Organs ................................. 308
4.3 Limited Interdependence between the UN Organs............... .. ... 309
4.4 The Effect of the Cold War.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. . ... 310
5. Suggestions for Improving the Advisory Function........................ 311
6. Towards the Future... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7. Suggestions for Further Research and Concluding Remarks.. . . .. . . . . . . 318
Bibliography
1. Books...... ... ... ... ... ............ .... ....... ....... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ...... ..... ... 320
2. Journal Articles, Chapters in Books and Lectures. .•••••••••.•••••••.. .•• ..• 328
3. Theses.................................................................................. 343
4. Significant Official Reports and Documents................................ ••• 344
Appendices.. ...... .... ...... ..... ...... .... ....... ........... .... .... .... ....... ... ... 346
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Acknowledgement
I acknowledge both my debt and gratitude to a number of people who assisted me in the
completion of this thesis. My first and very great thanks go to my supervisor Professor
Istvan Pogany for his great help and unfailing support during the entire work on this
thesis. His view of research and his demand for detail, clarity and for producing a
consistently high quality of work and nothing less has made the process of research into a
true learning experience. I will always remember his motto that "every single sentence
has to be clear, unambiguous and, where appropriate, well supported by references",
while every single word has to be there for a purpose. lowe him a lot of gratitude for
having me shown this way of undertaking research. No words are sufficient in themselves
to thank him for his unending academic assistance and moral support. I am indeed
fortunate to have him as a supervisor and as a friend.
I would like also to thank the staff of the library at the University of Warwick,
especially those in charge of the legal materials on the fourth floor. For the past four
years I have witnessed their continued professionalism, helpfulness and dedication to
their work which one can only envy.
Thanks are also due to my home university, the University of Jordan, for its
financial support over the past four years. My appreciation, in addition, goes to Professor
Ghassan Aijundi, from the Law Department at the University of Jordan, for his help and
invaluable advice. Professor Ghassan was kind enough to discuss my early ideas on my
chosen research topic and to share his thoughts with me. I would like also to thank Dr.
Gerard Sharpling, of CELTE at the University of Warwick, and Dr. Frank Dawson,
formerly a fellow of Hugh's Hall, Cambridge, for reading this thesis in draft. They helped
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