Stigma Allure and White Antiracist Identity Management - American

24 Pages·2012·0.18 MB·English

by  Lesley Watson

Stigma Allure and White Antiracist Identity Management

Matthew W. Hughey
Department of Sociology. Mississippi State University

Corresponding Author
Department of Sociology, Mississippi State University, 207 Bowen Hall, P.O. Box C,
Mississippi State, MS 39762.

Email: [email protected]

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When can the prospect of being stigmatized become an alluring identity? I add to, and
contest, the dominant research on race and stigma by demonstrating how privileged
actors repeatedly construct a broken and stigmatized white and antiracist identity in
which the management of one identity re-establishes the stigmatization of the other.
White antiracism, as an unconventional identity practice, can often involve a presentation
of self that unsettles established habit and expected modes of interaction. I empirically
delineate how a group of white antiracist activists not only accept a “spoiled” identity
(whiteness-as-racist and antiracism-as-too-radical), but embrace that stigma as markings
of moral commitment and political authenticity. This dynamic—what I call “stigma
allure”—illuminates how stigma, rather than an essentialized and static status to be
shunned or entirely overcome, can become a desired component of identity formation
that drives and orders human behavior toward utilitarian, symbolic, and self-creative
goals.
INTRODUCTION

Michael sat near a window in the headquarters for the white antiracist organization I call
“Whites for Racial Justice.” A thirty-six year-old banker by profession, he accrued nearly
five years in the organization by October 2006. Leaned back in his chair on a chilly
autumn day, he took a deep breath and stated, “White people, we’re … we’re conditioned
to see the world in racist ways, as though we’re the natural owners and administrators of
the planet. That weighs on me constantly, you know?” As he settled his gaze through the
window he continued with an uncomfortable laugh. “Ha! I sometimes wonder if what
we’re doing is pointless, because, you know, we’re just conditioned to feel superior. But,
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then again, what’s the alternative? Give up? It’s a struggle to figure it all out. But if that’s
the worst of my worries, then so be it” (Michael interview, 10/06).
BACKGROUND
Emerging from their prior mainstream and synonymous relationship with the
neutral, natural, and unmarked (e.g., Bonilla-Silva 2010; Delgado and Stefancic 1997;
Feagin 2009), white racial identities are increasingly variable and debated (e.g.,
Hartmann, Gerteis, and Croll 2009; McDermott and Samson 2005; Twine and
Steinbugler 2006). Despite such discourse and new forms of overt white racial activism,
“whiteness and antiracism sometimes are spoken of, or written about, as if they were
antithetical” (Eichstedt 2001: 446). Given the hyper-racialized makeup of the US, it is
important to study when and how beneficiaries of the racial order both accept and resist
that arrangement. Hence, the intersection of whiteness and antiracist activism emerges as
a key site for the examination of actors’ perceptions of their racial and activist identities
as simultaneously privileged and “stigmatized” (Goffman 1961, 1963). And it is an
unanticipated result when white antiracists engage in the enthusiastic adoption of a self-
conception of both whiteness and activism as broken, deficient, disgraced, and otherwise
stigmatized categories.
Managing a spoiled or stigmatized identity (Goffman 1961, 1963) is an “ongoing
accomplishment” (Garfinkel 1967) in that people “create, present, and sustain personal
identities that are congruent with and supportive of the self-concept” (Snow and
Anderson 1987: 1348). Despite this general direction, I find four ways to refine the
concept of “stigma.”
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First, the majority of research on stigma centers on the marginalized: mental
patients (Goffman 1961; Kroska and Harkness 2006), street-corner hangouts and the
homeless (Liebow 1967), LGBT activists (Gamson 1995), hate crime victims (Lyons
2006), impoverished neighborhoods (Sampson and Raudenbush 2011), the overweight
(Carr and Friedman 2006), and nonwhite racial groups (Hawlow 2003). While stigma is
often assumed the exclusive province of the low-statused (Leary and Schreindorfer 1998;
Link and Phelan 2001; Major and Eccleston 2004), I argue that dominant and privileged
groups may also navigate differing types of stigma.
A second area for theoretical refinement of stigma exists in a focal shift from
outlying, individual actors that deviate from normative group contexts, to collectively
stigmatized identities (Link and Phelan 2001:366, 371). While Goffman (1963:3)
suggested a need for “a language of relationships, not attributes,” the dominant
approaches to stigma center on individual characteristics (Cf. Fine and Asch 1988). For
example, the majority of research centers on how individuals in any given context, might
deviate from norms in ways the majority finds distasteful, strange, or dangerously
deviant, for example: someone who “double-dips a chip” (the act of re-dipping a
previously bitten out of chip in collectively shared dip [made famous by the 1993
Seinfeld episode “the implant”]), a person who faces the “wrong way” (away from the
door) in an elevator, or an individual who openly identifies as lesbian or gay in a hetero-
normative regime. Research on stigma needs to focus on less on outlying individuals and
more on groups that are stigmatized between, within, and across groups. That research
would focus on stigma as meaningful social ties that bind actors together.
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Third, depending on situational context, stigma may serve as an integral
mechanism for either utilitarian task performance or advantageous identity formations
and interactions. In the former, the social scientific production of knowledge about
stigma generally hails from theories uninformed by the lived experience of the
stigmatized (Cf. Link and Phelan 2001). Research geared toward participatory
examination and group understanding could well illuminate how stigma enables (rather
than solely constrains) goal attainment. In the latter, once task impairment is no longer
assumed a priori, researchers could address how stigma may help win sympathy or
legitimacy from peers and thus propel the stigmatized group trajectory within a particular
“moral career” (Goffman 1963).
Fourth, prior work emphasizes the strategies by which individuals attempt to
reduce stigma: going into social isolation (Goffman 1961), “passing as normal” (Goffman
1961), shunning stigmatized others (Henson and Rogers 2001:230), “open confrontation”
(Feagin 2000:245), “flaming” (Rosenblum and Travis 1996: 152-4), selective disclosure
and “expressive balance” (Simi and Futrell 2009:92-4), and offering an alternative
identity or “cover story” (Rogers 2000:113).
Drawing from these four directions, I add to the research on stigma by examining
how a socially privileged group (whites, largely white men) both consciously and
unconsciously embrace, rather than shun, a stigmatized identity as a sign of their
authenticity and moral commitment to a shared cause—in this case “antiracist” activism.
I show that some actors do not simply desire to “pass into normal” but require a
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simultaneous process of stigmatization and salvation in order to experience themselves as
causal agents in their environment.
WHITENESS AND WHITE IDENTITIES

Early sociological examinations of whiteness found that whites possess a lower
degree of self-awareness about their racial identity than members of other racial groups,
as well as a relative inability to recognize their own racial privilege and racist attitudes
(Du Bois 1920). Yet, under certain conditions, whites are extremely aware of their racial
identity. Gallagher (1995) found that some whites exhibit a high degree of racial
consciousness when they are the racial minority or feel threatened. At times this white
racial consciousness takes the forms of white nationalist groups like the Ku Klux Klan,
while at other times to manifests in white antiracist groups like S.H.A.R.P. (Skin Heads
Against Racial Prejudice) or A.W.A.R.E. (Alliance of White Anti Racists Everywhere)
(Eichstedt 2001; Hughey 2007, 2006).
Given these diverse forms of whiteness, what it means to be white in today’s day
and age is a confusing thing. Sociologist Howard Winant (2004:5-6) thus argues:
… whites, now experience a division in their racial identities. On the one hand,
whites inherit the legacy of white supremacy, from which they continue to
benefit. But on the other hand, they are subject to the moral and political
challenges posed to that inheritance. … As a result, white identities have been
displaced and refigured: they are now contradictory, as well as confused and
anxiety ridden, to an unprecedented extent. It is this situation which can be
described as white racial dualism.
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In examining whites that chose “antiracist” lives, such white racial dualism is apparent.
Twine and Steinbugler (2006:345) remark that, white antiracists are “outsiders within,”
due to their simultaneous position as beneficiaries and resisters of racial inequality.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY

In May 2006 I gained access to the headquartered chapter of a nationwide white
antiracist organization I call “Whites for Racial Justice” (hereafter WRJ).1 The
headquarters for WRJ was located in a mid-Atlantic city I call “Fairview.” Founded in
the 1970s, WRJ slowly grew into a national organization of over twenty chapters with a
reported membership, at its height, of nearly 800. WRJ generates publications, sponsors
workshops and conferences, and promotes media events about what white people can do
to fight racism. Members believe that by coming together just as whites, they take
responsibility to oppose racism within the “white community” and to create a “safe
space” for whites to contest racism and prejudice in their own lives.
From May 2006 to June 2007, my ethnographic study of WRJ was composed of
fieldwork (I attended their meetings (n = 27) and day to day informal observations; semi-
structured, in-depth interviews with members (n = 21), and; content analysis inclusive of
newsletter issues (n = 4), flyers (n = 10) and textual information such as electronic
correspondence and office memos (n = 165). My focus was the observation of identity-
management strategies—namely, I wanted to know more about the relationship between
(1) how these actors made ongoing meaning of race and (anti)racism and (2) their
identity-management strategies.

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 In order to receive Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval, all potentially identifying information
regarding the white antiracists in this study were changed and replaced with pseudonyms.

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Identity-management strategies are not always directly observable, but they have
empirical manifestations in the discursive and affective framing of social situations
(Rashotte 2002). Frames are “relatively bounded sets of arguments organized around a
specific diagnosis or solution to some social problem” (Ellingson 1995:107). Three
defining characteristics identify collectively held frames. Frames involve a cast of
characters involved in the action (Polletta 2006). Second, they require clear demarcation
between the actors that possess “self-efficacy” and those acted upon (Gecas and
Schwalbe 1983:79). Third, frames involve plot structures that connect events through
causal imputation (Goffman 1983). For WRJ, the relevant characters are the members’
identities in relation to the perceived stigma of whiteness and activism. This framing
emerged when the (1) cast of characters were (2) clearly identified as active and/or
passive in (3) implicit or explicit causal relationships in empirically-repeated patterns.
STIGMA ALLURE:
THE APPROPRIATION OF STIGMA AND REPRODUCTION OF IDENTITY

Akin to dominant understandings of race and politics, the white antiracists in this study
constructed understandings of “whiteness” and “antiracism” as essentially adversative.
Yet, they were attracted to understandings and performances that, ironically, continually
salvaged and re-stigmatized each aspect of their identity. I found that the adequate
management of one (i.e.: white racial identity) created the need to manage the stigma of
the other (i.e.: antiracist identity) (see Figure 1). This dynamic illuminates how stigma
(when both internally perceived and socially shared) may be appropriated and embraced
(rather than a status one shuns or attempts to definitively overcome) in ways that
reproduce racial and activist identity.
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THE PERCEIVED STIGMA OF “BEING WHITE”

The respondents in this study perceived their whiteness as inherently stigmatized due to
their participation in racial segregation, their possession of racial stereotypes, and their
lack of serious political and social unification with people of color.
Figure 1: The Process of Stigma Allure

Step 2.
Managing Stigmatized
White Racial Identity

A. Racial Objectification
B. Reduction of Racism

C. False Equivalencies

Step 1. Step 3.

The Perceived Stigma of The Perceived Stigma of

“Being White” “Being Antiracist”
Stigma

A. Stigma of Segregation Allure A. Stigma of Counter-

Hegemonic Whiteness
B. Stigma of Stereotypes
B. Stigma of Racial
C. Stigma of Disunity
Activism

Step 4.

Managing Stigmatized

Antiracist Identity

A. The White Badge of

Courage

B. Activism Authenticity

The Stigma of Segregation
Most of the white antiracist members in this study lived in segregated and
overwhelmingly white neighborhoods with access to an array of health, education, and
employment resources. Such a reality was a bitter pill to swallow for many members of
WRJ. As Wayne expressed one day while we walked through his neighborhood:
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Most white people don’t realize that “diversity” is a far different cry from that
thing we might call “true integration.” Yeah, I live here, there’s an Asian couple
there and a few African American families down there [gesturing toward specific
houses as he spoke], but we’re not really that close. … we don’t talk about “hot
button” issues. Religion, politics, race [emphasizing the latter] are not really
brought up. … I might talk about the weather or what crab grass is killing my
yard … nothing tangible. … it sucks; I know I’m a part of the problem. It’s not
enough to simply live here. Living beside people who look different is not “real
antiracism,” that’s an excuse for those that want to feel better about their lives
without doing anything. … Most other racially conscious whites might think just
living here is enough. And most whites, overall, live only among themselves
(Wayne interview, 06/06).
The knowledge of Wayne’s own lack of intimate racial contact, alongside that of many
other whites’ racial segregation, came to represent a significant personal and racialized in
terms of practicing both “true integration” and “real antiracism.”
The Stigma of Stereotypes
The collective identification of members’ stereotypes and prejudices in group meetings
and informal interactions re-emphasized the stigma of their whiteness. My ethnographic
fieldnotes and recording from one WRJ meeting exemplify this identity work:
Fieldnotes: Afternoon. 12 present. Topic = ‘Identifying Our Prejudices’.
[Malcolm] led 10 min intro on import of recognizing white prejudice/stereotypes.
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