States of Consciousness: Models for Psychology and Psychotherapy (Emotions, Personality, and Psychotherapy)

282 Pages·2006·2 MB·English

by  Andrzej Kokoszka

States of Consciousness
EMOTIONS, PERSONALITY, AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
Series Editors:
Carroll E. Izard, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware
and
Jerome L. Singer, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Current volumes in the series
FINDING MEANING IN DREAMS: AQuantitative Approach
Written by G. William Domhoff
FROM MEMORIES TO MENTALILLNESS: AConceptual Journey
Written by William M. Hall
LANGUAGE IN PSYCHOTHERAPY: Strategies of Discovery
Edited by Robert L. Russell
SAMPLING INNER EXPERIENCE IN DISTURBED AFFECT
Written by Russell T. Hurlburt
SHYNESS: Perspectives on Research and Treatment
Edited by Warren H. Jones, Jonathan M. Cheek and Stephen R. Briggs
THE COGNITIVE FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITYTRAITS
Written by Shulamith Kreitler and Hans Kreitler
THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN: Physiology, Neuroanatomy, Psychology
and Emotion
Written by P.V. Simonov
THE PSYCHOBIOLOGYOF EMOTIONS
Written by Jack George Thompson
THE PSYCHOLOGYOF EMOTIONS
Written by Carroll E. Izard
THE ROLE OF EMOTIONS IN SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT: History, Theory and Research
Written by Carol Magai and Susan H. McFadden
THE TRANSFORMED SELF: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF RELIGIOUS
CONVERSION
Written by Chana Ullman
WHAT DEVELOPS IN EMOTIONALDEVELOPMENT?
Edited by Michael F. Mascolo and Sharon Griffin
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS:Models for Psychology and Psychotherapy
Written by Andrzej Kokoszka
AContinuation Order Plan is available for this series. Acontinuation order will bring delivery
of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon actual
shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.
States of Consciousness:
Models for Psychology and Psychotherapy
By
Andrzej Kokoszka
Medical University of Warsaw
Warszawa, Poland
With chapter by
Andrzej Bielecki
Institute of Computer Science
Jagiellonian University
Kraków, Poland
ABC
Andrzej Kokoszka
II Department of Psychiatry
Medical University of Warsaw
Ul. Kondratowicza 8
03-242 Warszawa
Poland
[email protected]
Library of Congress Control Number: 2006926440
ISBN-10: 0-387-32757-6 e-ISBN-10: 0-387-32758-4
ISBN-13: 978-0-387-32757-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-0-387-32758-7
Printed on acid-free paper.
©2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York,
NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews orscholarly analysis. Use in
connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer
software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they
are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are
subject to proprietary rights.
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
springer.com
For my wife, Bogna
Preface
Thestateofconsciousnessisourcommonexperienceineverydaylife.Itisanatu-
ralandobviousphenomenon.Wedonottroubleourselveswithsubtleortransient
changesofstatesofconsciousness.However,thepathologicalstates,i.e,dysfunc-
tionalandpainfulones,causeustoseektherapy.Psychiatricandpsychotherapeutic
diagnosesbeginfromtheassessmentofthepatient’sstateofconsciousness.The
main goal of this book is to present a general model of states of consciousness
thatwilldescribethevarietyofmodalitiesofexperiencing,aswellastopropose
a comprehensive model for the assessment of the main psychological structures
andfunctionsofinformationprocessing,i.e.,ofinformationmetabolism.
Theassessmentofthequalitiesofstatesofconsciousnessisacommonpartof
psychological,psychotherapeuticandpsychiatricdiagnosis,butonlywhenthere
are apparent abnormalities, e.g., persistent insomnia. Therapists do not pay at-
tention to the subtle fluctuations in the form of natural states of consciousness.
However, there is data supporting Kleitman’s (1963) hypothesis of a biological
rhythm of a 90-minute cycle i.e. “basic rest-activity cycle” (BRAC) of changes
inthebrainactivity.ItismanifestedbywelldocumentedREM-NonREMcycles
duringsleep.ItismoredifficulttofindthedailymanifestationsoftheBRAC,due
to other activities performed in waking. The suppression of this rhythm and its
indirect manifestations are described by concepts of “ultradian stress syndrome
and ultradian healing response” (Rossi, 1991) and of protective mechanisms of
theBRAC(Kokoszka,1990)namedalso“protectivemechanismsofinformation”
(Kokoszka, 1993b). They received meaningful confirmation in the research of
DuchniewskaandKokoszka,(2003),thatwillbepresentedindetailinchapterV.
UntilnowneitherRossi’snormyideasreceivedclinicians’attention.
Fortunately,thesimilarideaofmindfulness,i.e.nonjudgmentalpresent-moment
experience(Miller,Fletcher,Kabat-Zinn,1995),hasbeengiventheincreasingat-
tentionofpsychologistsandcognitivetherapists.Accordingtotheapproachpro-
posedinthisbook,mindfulnessisunderstoodasaspecificattitudethatnotonly
facilitatesoccurrenceofthenaturalstateofconsciousnesscharacterizedbyapas-
siveattitudeofmind(contemplation)anddominationofreceptionofinformation
coming from internal sources of stimulation (an individual brain and body), but
also enhances its duration in a day, at the expense of the state of consciousness
vii
viii Preface
characterizedbyagoal-orientedactivityanddominationofthereceptionofinfor-
mationfromexternalsourcesofstimulation.Takingintoaccountthecontemporary
culturalpressurefortask-orientedactivity,theroutineofpracticingmindfulness
ineverydaylifemaybeunderstoodasameansofprotectionagainstpressurefor
unlimited activity. Fortunately, the concept of mindfulness has more empirical
confirmation than the ultradian healing response and the protective mechanism
of the information metabolism (the BRAC). However, it will be argued that all
thoseconceptsarerelatedtothesamenaturalstateofconsciousnessandwaysof
achievingit.
It should be stressed that the models presented describe general qualities of
statesofconsciousnessandgeneralstructuresofinformationprocessingthatcon-
stituteacomprehensivemeta-rationalefortheexistingpsychotherapeuticmodels
thatarefocusedonthoseaspectsofinformationprocessingthat,accordingtothose
approaches,havetheimportantrolesinsymptomformationandtherapy.Forex-
ample,thepsychodynamicapproachconsidersinformationprocessinginmental
processes in terms of defense mechanisms and object relations; behavioral ther-
apyintermsoflearningprocess;thecognitiveapproachintermsofthemeaning
assignment;etc.Theproposedmodelcanbefollowedbysomeofthoseconcepts
inthedescriptionofthespecificpathologicalconditions.
Thecreationofconsciousnessmodelsrequiresconsideringmostoftheaspectsof
psychicalactivity.Therefore,inthebook,manypsychologicaltopicsarediscussed.
Although the book is not a fully updated review of the literature; that is not the
goalofthiswork.Thebookaimstopresentmoregeneralconclusionsaboutthe
structureoftheinternalhumanworldbasedoncontemporaryscience.
Iwouldliketoproposethatreadersconsiderthisvolumeasaguidebookforthe
investigationofthestructureofourinternalworld.Forclarity,theideaspresented
are illustrated in models, and the theoretical discussions are limited to the most
necessarytopics.Thecurrentstateofknowledgeontheconstructionoftheinternal
worldisconcernedwithaccumulatingdetailedfindingsandorganizingtheminto
moreorlesscomprehensivemodels,whicharesubsequently,testifiedandverified.
The other important goal of the models is to facilitate the formulation of new
importantquestions.
Thebookisdevotedtoavarietyofaspectsofconsciousness,whichisafunda-
mentalpsychicalphenomenon.However,itstillremainsachallengeforscience.
Weknowitbetterfromourdirectpersonalexperiencethenfromresultsofresearch.
Consciousnessisanobviousaspectofourlifeanditsexistenceisunquestionable,
butitisinsomewaysineffable.Eventually,anyinformationthatcanchangeour
intuitive,“direct”understandingofconsciousnesscancausemanyotherchanges
inouroutlookonlife.Therefore,studiesofconsciousnessmaybefascinating,or
threatening,foraninvestigator.However,untilnowtherehaven’tbeenanycrucial,
unequivocaldiscoveries.Instead,weareleftwithanenormousamountofpubli-
cationsondifferentaspectsofconsciousness.Thereisalsoagrowingnumberof
booksonthistopic,buttherearenogoodtheoreticalframeworks,noristherea
rationalefortheintegrationofexistingpartialknowledgeaboutconsciousness.On
onehand,neurobiologicalmodelsarenotveryhelpfulinunderstandingcommon
Preface ix
everyday subjective experiences. On the other hand, current psychotherapeutic
modelsareverysimplifiedincomparisonwiththevarietyofdescriptionsofsubtle
differencesinindividualexperiences.
Thesereflectionscompelledmetostudymedicine,psychologyandphilosophy
nearly 30 years ago and, later, to work on models of consciousness. I continue
thisinterestinordertobetterunderstandthedifferentandspecificmodesofex-
periencing not only of the patients whom I meet in psychotherapy, but also of
people who reported experiencing so-called higher states of consciousness, and
last but not least, the variety of my own experiences. In my studies I took dif-
ferentapproaches.Atthebeginningofmyinvestigations,whenPolandwasstill
inisolationbehindthe“ironcurtain,”Iwasfascinatedbyhumanisticpsychology
and Eastern tradition. I completed the training for the professional certificate of
“authorizedinstructorwithinthescopeofrelaxation-concentrationtraining”(i.e.,
yoga),issuedbythePolishMinistryofPhysicalEducation.Thetrainingwasled
byTadeuszPasek,trainedbySwamiKuvalayanandaandS.L.VinekarinLonavla,
India.Eventually,Iconductedthetrainingforhealthypeopleandfordepressed,
neurotic,andschizophrenicpatientsforacoupleofyears.Thiswasalsothetopic
ofmyresearchandthethesisformyM.A.inpsychologyatJagiellonianUniversity
“OnPossibilitiesofApplyingRelaxationTechniquesLeadingtotheAlteredStates
ofConsciousnessforPsychotherapeuticandPsychohygienicPurposes.”However,
soonafterwardIswitchedtoapsychodynamicapproach,andafterapproximately
tenyearstoacognitiveone.Recentlythecognitiveapproachhascomeintoalign-
mentwiththeEasterntraditionasseenintheprogramoftheInternationalCongress
ofCognitiveTherapyinconfluencewiththeIXWorldCongressonConstructivism
TherapyinGoteborgin2005.ThereweremanylecturesonBuddhistpsychology
andmindfulness,includingaspectaculardialogueofHisHolinesstheDalaiLama
withAaronBeck,thefounderofcognitivetherapy.
Twenty years ago, after a careful study of the literature on altered states of
consciousness,Inoticedthatthetheoriesoftwo,nowdeceased,prominentPolish
psychiatrists,JanMazurkiewicz(1871–1947)andAntoniKepin´ski(1918–1972)
(cid:2)
might significantly contribute to the creation of a general meta-rationale for the
study of consciousness. These psychiatrists published mainly in Polish, because
theyhadverylimitedpossibilitiesforinternationalcontactsduetopoliticalcon-
ditions.Later,Isuccessfullyappliedtheirideasinthecreationofmodelsofstates
ofconsciousness.Thisbookreformulatesandmorepreciselypresentstheresults
ofmystudiesthatweregraduallypublishedinaseriesofpapersininternational
journalsduringthelasttwodecades.
My interest in models of consciousness was reinforced by my environment.
My professional duties were divided between research in cognitive psychology
and clinical psychiatry at the psychodynamically oriented Ward of Neuroses
Treatment.Ifeltastrongneedtointegratethesetwoparadigms.Myinternation-
allyrecognizedpsychotherapeutictrainingalsoincludedthepsychodynamicand
cognitiveapproach.Icompletedtrainingingroupanalysis(psychoanalyticgroup
psychotherapy) organized in Warsaw by the Institute of Group Analysis from
Heidelberg,Germany,in1995,withWernerKnaussasourgroupanalyst,andthe
x Preface
training in cognitive and behavioral therapy organized in Warsaw by an Italian
Association of Cognitive and Behavioral Therapy in 2002. It was led by Tullio
ScrimaliwithameaningfulcontributionbyArthurFreeman.TullioScrimaliinte-
gratesacognitive-behavioralapproachwiththeconstructivisticideasofVittorio
GuidanoandMichaelMahoney,whicharequitecompatiblewiththeinformation
metabolismtheory.Myfriend,mathematicianAndrzejBieleckiandIdiscovered
that my models can be described in terms of dynamic systems theory, which is
oneoftheinspirationsformodernconstructivism.Themathematicaldescription
ofinformationmetabolismispresentedinChapter7(writtenbyhim).
Ourpersonalexperiencestendtobeego-syntonicandwithoutcognitivedisso-
nance. The internal events which are within our usual range of experiences are
obviousandconsideredratherasnatural,andnotasaltered,evenifsomeofthem
varyfromthemainstreamofourstates.Therefore,wedonotrecognizesuperficial
ASCinoureverydaylife.Additionally,becauseofatendencyforareductionof
cognitivedissonance,profoundASCbecomesgraduallytransformedintoamore
and more natural shape; and as time goes by, the experiences originally expe-
rienced as very unusual acquire a more usual meaning. Therefore, the reader is
kindly requested to take into consideration these tendencies and to reflect upon
thefluctuationofhisorherownstatesofconsciousnessaswellastotrytorecall
unusual experiences that happened sometime in his or her life. I hope that the
presentedmodelwillbehelpfulinallowingreaderstoreflectuponthetheoretical
andpersonalaspectsofstatesofconsciousness,justasithashelpedme.
It is recommended, but not necessary, to read all chapters of the book con-
secutively.Inordertomakeitpossibletoreadindividualchaptersthereissome
repetitioninthebook.
AndrzejKokoszka
(cid:2)Lomianki,Poland
August2005