Table Of ContentSpace Technology Export Controls
and International Cooperation in Outer Space
SPACE REGULATIONS LIBRARY
VOLUME6
EDITORIALBOARD
ManagingEditor
PROF.RAMS.JAKHU,InstituteofAirandSpaceLaw,McGillUniversity,Montreal,
Canada
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Michael C. Mineiro
Space Technology Export
Controls and International
Cooperation in Outer Space
Foreword by Ram S. Jakhu
123
MichaelC.Mineiro
McGillUniversity
Montreal,QC
Canada
815ThayerAve,Suite510
SilverSprings,MD20910
USA
[email protected]
ISBN978-94-007-2566-9 e-ISBN978-94-007-2567-6
DOI10.1007/978-94-007-2567-6
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Foreword
The bilateral paradigm that defined the early days of the space age is no longer.
Themultiplicityofspaceactors,theshiftingrelativeshareofeconomiccapability,
the associated proliferation of space technologies, and the increasing reliance by
military,civil,andcommercialspacecommunitiesrequiresashiftinhowtheinter-
national community engages in outer space. Space technology export controls are
stillbasedonaunilateralparadigmofStateengagementinouterspace.Whilecoop-
erationdoesoccur,itistypicallylimitedasnottorequiretechnologydevelopment
ortransferinternationally,andasaresulttheinternationalcommunityisyetunable
tofullysynergizetheirrespectivecapabilitiesinthepeacefuluseandexplorationof
outerspace.Theresearchandfindingsofthisbookaddressthoseissuescomprehen-
sivelyinlightoftheevolvingnatureofinternationalspacelawandrelationsaswell
asrapidlyemergingglobalisedworld.
In a number of ways this book is a unique and excellent exploration of the
nexus between international cooperation in outer space, national security, space
technology, general public international law, and international space law. It seeks
toilluminatetheunderlyinglegal,political,andtechnicalfactorsimpactinginterna-
tional cooperation in outer space. Dr. Michael C. Mineiro has brilliantly analyzed
this complex nexus from an objective perspective and has made several practical
andviablerecommendations.
Istronglyrecommendthisbooktoallthatareinterestedinthestudyandpractice
of law and policy related to space exploration and utilization of outer space; be
theystudents,teachers,lawyers,aerospaceprofessionalsandmanagers,diplomats,
orpolicyandlawmakers.Undoubtedly,theywillfindthismonographaveryuseful
sourceandanimportanttoolfortheirprofessionalpursuits.
Montreal,QC,Canada RamS.Jakhu
v
Preface
Internationalcooperationinouterspaceiscentraltomankind’scontinuedpeaceful
explorationanduseofouterspace.Thetraditionalhegemony ofonlyahandfulof
States with space technology is eroding. Emerging space powers such as Brazil,
China,andIndiaareincreasingly developing sophisticatedspace technologies and
applications.Traditionalspaceactors,suchastheUnitedStates,willneedtoengage
in broader international cooperation in order to maximize benefits and minimize
costs.
Thisproliferationofcivilspacetechnologyisapositivedevelopment.Ashuman-
ity achieves more global participation in outer space, the resources allocated to
civilspaceactivityshouldincreaseanddiversify.Fromacommunalperspective,the
totalityofbenefitsofourpeacefulexplorationanduseofouterspacewillimproveas
internationalcooperationresultsinimprovedspacetechnologiesandapplications.
Centraltointernationalcooperationinouterspaceistheunderlyingspacetech-
nologies that support exploration and use. Civil space technologies have a close
relationship to military technologies. This dual-use nature of space technologies
raisesconcernsofproliferationandunauthorizeduseasStatesdevelopinternational
cooperation.Asaresult,Statesareselectiveintheirinternationalengagement.
Thefundamentalfindingofthismonographisthatalacunaexistswithingeneral
publicinternationallawthatperpetuatesaself-justifiedsecuritydilemmathatinturn
inhibitsgreaterinternationalcooperationinouterspace.Thislacunaismanifested
in domestic space technology export control regimes and associated international
exportcontrolarrangements.Thislacunaisalsoevidentinthefailureofparticular
legal principles of cooperation as enunciated within international space law from
receivingfullengagement.
It is my hope that the knowledge developed in this monograph will assist the
international community in successfully fulfilling the principles of Article I of the
OuterSpaceTreaty,inparticulartheprinciplethatthepeacefulexplorationanduse
ofouterspaceshallbecarriedoutforthebenefitandintheinterestsofallcountries.
Montreal,QC,Canada MichaelC.Mineiro
vii
Acknowledgements
Thismanuscriptcouldnothavebeencompletedwithoutthesupportandfriendship
of countless persons. Most importantly has been the enduring love and support of
myparentsDr.LuizE.G.MineiroandBarbaraMineiro.
TheresearchforthismonographwasconductedasadoctoralstudentatMcGill
University,FacultyofLaw,andattheMcGillUniversity,InstituteofAirandSpace
Law,underthesupervisionofDr.RamJakhu.Itisaprivilegetohaveservedunder
thesupervisionofDr.RamJakhu.Hisbeliefinmyabilityasascholar,aswellthe
limitlessgenerosityofhistime,wasaconsistentsourceofstrengthandinspiration.I
willrememberfondlythemanyscholarlyconversationsweshared.Aspecialthanks
toDr.FrançoisCrépaeuandDr.VictorMuñiz-Fraticelli,mydoctoralthesisadvisory
committee. Their constructive criticism was invaluable in refining this manuscript
andinguidingmydevelopmentasalegalscholar.
AttheInstituteofAir&SpaceLawIwouldliketothankDr.PaulDempseyfor
his leadership and guidance, Maria D’Amico for her friendship and professional-
ism,andmycolleagues,includingAliAhmadi,MichaelDodge,CatherineDoldrina,
Diane Howard, Norberto Luango, and Yaw Nyampong. The Nahum Gelber Law
Library staff provided world-class research and support services, with special
acknowledgmentforDanielBoyer,MaryvonCote,EamonDuffy,LouisaPiatti,and
Kathleen Vandermoot. Also, thank you to my colleagues, staff, and faculty at The
HagueAcademyofInternationalLaw,whereIstudiedpublicinternationallawand
conductedresearchforthismonograph.
In Washington D.C., special thanks to Kent Bossart and Richard DalBello of
Intelsat for providing an industry perspective. Also, to Marc Holzaphel of Virgin
Galactic for discussing the international impact U.S. export controls have on
commercialspacetechnologyventures.
My research was financially supported with the Boeing Fellowship in Air &
Space Law, with special thanks to the McGill Institute of Air & Space Law, the
BoeingCorporation,Dr.PeterNesgos,andMr.RobertGordonforestablishingthe
fellowship.
ix
Introduction
Ibelievethatthelong-termfutureofthehumanracemustbe
inspace.Ouronlychanceoflongtermsurvivalisnottoremain
inwardlookingonplanetEarth,buttospreadoutintospace.
–StephenHawking1
Afteronelookatthisplanetanyvisitorfromouterspacewould
say“Iwanttoseethemanager.”
–WilliamS.Burroughs2
Outer space is intimately related to our human future. Whether our future will be
brightorbleakwilldepend,inpart,onhowweasaglobalcommunityutilizeouter
space for our benefit and how we engage outer space as the next destination for
humanity. Our journey begins here on Earth, in our terrestrial law and politics, in
thedecisionswemakeasacommunityofStatesandacommunityofpeople.
One critical element to human use and exploration of outer space is the under-
lyingtechnologiesthatsupportsuchendeavors.Marvelsofhumaningenuity,space
technologies have enabled people to garner the benefits of outer space. But space
technologiesarenotubiquitous.Theyaresophisticatedandrequireahigh-degreeof
economicandtechnicaldevelopment.AlmostallStatesandpeoplesoftheworldare
impactedpositivelybyouterspaceapplications,butveryfewStateshaveachieved
accesstoouterspaceorhavethecapabilitytomanufacturespacevehiclesorspace-
craft(e.g.satellites).Giventheadvancednatureofspacetechnologies,globalcivil
cooperation in outer space has not been achieved. Instead, only certain States are
directlyinvolvedinthedevelopmentandutilizationofouterspace.
Thiscurrentparadigmissupportedbyinternationalanddomesticspacetechno-
logy trade and proliferation controls. The current model of trade and proliferation
controlsprioritizesunilateralState“nationalsecurity”concerns,whichinturnper-
petuates the use and exploration of outer space by only a select number of States
1StephenHawking,statementmadeon6August2010regardinghumanity’sfutureandouterspace
onBigThink.Comat<http://bigthink.com/ideas/21691>.
2William Burroughs, attributed on QuotationsPage.Com at <http://www.quotationspage.com/
quote/27694.html>.
xi
xii Introduction
through discriminatory technology engagement. Is there an alternative approach
thatbetterfacilitatesglobalcivilspacecooperation?Andifso,whatchallengesand
opportunitieswillitcarry?
In this monograph, space technology trade and proliferation controls are ana-
lyzed,focusingontwosubstantiveissuesthatillustratethechallengesandopportu-
nities of reform. The first substantive issue examined is the challenge of domestic
law and policy reform in light of international regulatory divergence. This issue
is examined through a case study of the U.S. commercial communication satellite
exportcontrolregime.Thesecondissueevaluatedistheinternationalimplicationof
spacetechnologytradeandproliferationcontrolonglobalcivilspacecooperation.
The unifying demonstration of this monograph is that States operate within an
international legal system that perpetuates a self-justified security dilemma whose
basisoriginatesinthesovereignlegalrightofStatestoproduce,procure,andmain-
tain space technologies of a military nature. As a result, the international legal
systemgoverningspacetechnologytradeandproliferationcreatesatensionbetween
perceivednationalsecurityneedsandthebenefitsofglobalcooperation.
MethodologicalOutlineoftheMonograph
This monograph is divided into three parts. Part I is a primer, providing a contex-
tual lenses for the subsequent case study. Part II examines the U.S. commercial
communicationsatellite(Comsat)exportcontrolregimeindetail,seekingtounder-
stand how it operates within the larger international legal, political, and economic
framework.Withinthiscasestudy,thefocusofanalysisistheinter-connectedness
of the U.S. regime to the rest of the world and the extra-territorial implications of
U.S.domesticlawandpolicy.Thiscasestudyprovidesamodelofinternationaland
domesticspacetechnologycontrolsasitstandstoday.PartIIIelevatestheanalysis
to the broader question of facilitating international civil space cooperation in light
of international and national security concerns, building upon Part II case study
conclusions.
