Smart Structures: Blurring the Distinction Between the Living and the Nonliving

364 Pages·2007·4.17 MB·English

by  Vinod K. Wadhawan

MONOGRAPHS ON THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
O F MATE R IALS
General Editors
Richard J. Brook Anthony Cheetham
Arthur Heuer Sir Peter Hirsch
Tobin J. Marks David G. Pettifor
Manfred Ruhle John Silcox
Adrian P. Sutton Matthew V. Tirrell
Vaclav Vitek
MONOGRAPHS ON THE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
O F MATE R IALS
Theory of dielectrics M. Frohlich
Strong solids (Third edition) A. Kelly and N. H. Macmillan
Optical spectroscopy of inorganic solids B. Henderson and G. F. Imbusch
Quantum theory of collective phenomena G. L. Sewell
Principles of dielectrics B. K. P. Scaife
Surface analytical techniques J. C. Rivière
Basic theory of surface states Sydney G. Davison and Maria Steslicka
Acoustic microscopy Andrew Briggs
Light scattering: principles and development W. Brown
Quasicrystals: a primer (Second edition) C. Janot
Interfaces in crystalline materials A. P. Sutton and R. W. Balluffi
Atom probe field ion microscopy M. K. Miller, A. Cerezo, M. G. Hetherington, and
G. D. W. Smith
Rare-earth iron permanent magnets J. M. D. Coey
Statistical physics of fracture and breakdown in disordered systems B. K. Chakrabarti
and L. G. Benguigui
Electronic processes in organic crystals and polymers (Second edition) M. Pope and
C. E. Swenberg
NMR imaging of materials B. Blümich
Statistical mechanics of solids L. A. Girifalco
Experimental techniques in low-temperature physics (Fourth edition) G. K. White
and P. J. Meeson
High-resolution electron microscopy (Third edition) J. C. H. Spence
High-energy electron diffraction and microscopy L.-M. Peng, S. L. Dudarev, and
M. J. Whelan
The physics of lyotropic liquid crystals: phase transitions and structural properties
A. M. Figueiredo Neto and S. Salinas
Instabilities and self-organization in materials, Volume 1: Fundamentals of
nanoscience, Volume 2: Applications in materials design and nanotechnology
N. Ghoniem and D. Walgraef
Introduction to scanning tunneling microscopy (Second edition) C. J. Chen
Smart Structures V. K. Wadhawan
S MART STR U CTU R E S
Blurring the Distinction Between the Living and the Nonliving
VINOD K. WADHAWAN
Raja Ramanna Fellow,
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai, India
1
3
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© Vinod K. Wadhawan 2007
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First published 2007
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Wadhawan, Vinod K.
Smart structures : blurring the distinction between the living and the nonliving /
Vinod K. Wadhawan.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-0-19-922917-8
1. Smart materials. 2. Nanoelectromechanical systems. I. Title.
TA418.9.S62W33 2007
624.1–dc22 2007025749
Typeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India
Printed in Great Britain
on acid-free paper by
Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk
ISBN 978–0–19–922917–8
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Technology, hailed as the means of bringing nature
under the control of our intelligence,
is enabling nature to exercise intelligence over us.
– George Dyson, Darwin Among the Machines
Dedicated to the memory to my younger brother Ajay,
who left this world so unjustly soon.
CONTENTS
Preface xiii
List of Abbreviations xix
1 Introduction and overview 1
1.1 Smart structures 1
1.2 Biomimetics 3
1.3 Bio-inspired computing 5
1.4 Nonlinear and tuneable response 8
1.5 Smart systems, structures, and materials 11
1.6 Functional materials and smart materials 13
1.7 Classification of structures 15
1.8 Self-similarity in smart structures 15
1.9 The question of scale 16
1.10 Nanostructured materials 17
1.11 The shape of things to come 18
1.12 Organization of the book 19
1.13 Chapter highlights 21
References 22
2 Information processing by biological and artificial smart
structures 25
2.1 A historical perspective 26
2.2 Biological evolution 31
2.3 Self-organizing systems 36
2.3.1 How the bees do it 36
2.3.2 Emergent behaviour 38
2.3.3 Positive feedback and pattern formation 38
2.3.4 Emergence and evolution 39
2.3.5 Perpetual novelty 40
2.3.6 Robust and dependable algorithms based on distributed
systems 40
2.4 Complexity 43
2.5 Computational intelligence 44
2.5.1 Artificial neural networks 45
2.5.2 Fuzzy-logic systems 50
2.5.3 Genetic algorithms 51
viii Contents
2.5.4 Genetic programming 52
2.5.5 Artificial life 53
2.5.6 Combinations of soft-computing tools 56
2.5.7 Data mining and knowledge discovery 56
2.6 Machines that can evolve 57
2.6.1 Reconfigurable computers 57
2.6.2 Self-healing machines 58
2.6.3 Hardware you can store in a bottle 59
2.7 Design principles of biological networks 59
2.7.1 Elements of network theory 61
2.7.2 Network motifs in sensory transcription networks 62
2.7.3 Network motifs in developmental transcription
networks 64
2.7.4 Signal transduction network motifs 64
2.7.5 Intercellular networks 64
2.7.6 Hallmarks of biological design 65
2.8 Chapter highlights 67
References 69
3 Ferroic materials 75
3.1 Phase transitions and critical phenomena 75
3.2 Ferroic phase transitions 81
3.3 Ferroic materials 82
3.3.1 Classification of ferroic materials 82
3.3.2 Primary ferroics 85
3.3.3 Secondary ferroics 88
3.4 Designer domain patterns 91
3.5 Spin glasses 93
3.6 Dipolar and quadrupolar glasses 96
3.7 Transport properties of ferroics 97
3.8 Field-induced phase transitions 98
3.9 Multiferroics 99
3.10 Colossal magnetoresistance 102
3.11 Shape memory effect in alloys 102
3.11.1 One-way shape memory effect 102
3.11.2 Two-way shape memory effect 104
3.11.3 Ferromagnetic shape-memory alloys 105
3.12 Relaxor ferroelectrics 105
3.13 Shape memory effect in ceramics 107
3.14 Chapter highlights 110
References 112
4 Soft matter 119
4.1 The hydrophobic interaction 119
4.2 Colloids 120
Contents ix
4.3 Polymers 121
4.3.1 Cellular polymers 122
4.3.2 Piezoelectric polymers 122
4.3.3 Conducting polymers 123
4.3.4 Shape-memory polymers 123
4.4 Polymer gels 125
4.5 Liquid crystals 127
4.6 Ferrofluids 128
4.7 Chapter highlights 128
References 129
5 Self-assembly and self-organization of matter 131
5.1 From elementary particles to thinking organisms 131
5.2 Supramolecular chemistry 132
5.3 Molecular recognition 132
5.4 Self-assembly 133
5.4.1 Self-assembly controlled by capillary interactions 135
5.4.2 Fluidic self-assembly 135
5.4.3 Templated self-assembly 135
5.4.4 Constrained self-assembly 136
5.5 Self-organization 136
5.5.1 Chemical coding for self-organization 136
5.5.2 Self-organized criticality 138
5.6 Supramolecular assemblies as smart structures 140
5.7 Chemical adaptation and evolution 142
5.8 Systems at the edge of order and chaos 142
5.9 Origin of life 144
5.10 Chapter highlights 145
References 146
6 Nanostructures 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Molecular building blocks for nanostructures 151
6.3 Phase transitions in small systems 152
6.3.1 The cluster-to-crystal transition 153
6.3.2 Thermodynamics of small systems 153
6.3.3 Fragmentation 156
6.4 Size dependence of macroscopic properties 156
6.4.1 Size effects in ferroic clusters and crystallites 156
6.4.2 Size effects in polycrystalline ferroics 159
6.4.3 Nanocomposites 160
6.5 Stability and optimum performance of artificial
nanostructures 161
6.6 Two-dimensional microfabrication
procedures 162