Sedimentology and Stratigraphy Nichols2009

432 Pages·2009·15.54 MB·English

by  Gary Nichols

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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
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Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
Second Edition
Gary Nichols
A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication
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Thiseditionfirstpublished2009,#2009byGaryNichols
Firstpublished1999
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Nichols,Gary.
Sedimentologyandstratigraphy/GaryNichols.–2nded.
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Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-4051-3592-4(pbk.:alk.paper)–ISBN978-1-4051-9379-5(hardcover:alk.paper)1.Sedimentationand
deposition.2.Geology,Stratigraphic.I.Title.
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Contents
Preface,ix 4 PROCESSES OF TRANSPORT
AND SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURES, 44
Acknowledgements,xi 4.1 Transportmedia,44
4.2 Thebehaviouroffluidsandparticles
1 INTRODUCTION: SEDIMENTOLOGY influids,45
AND STRATIGRAPHY, 1 4.3 Flows,sedimentandbedforms,50
1.1 Sedimentaryprocesses,1 4.4 Waves,58
1.2 Sedimentaryenvironmentsandfacies,2 4.5 Massflows,60
1.3 Thespectrumofenvironmentsandfacies,3 4.6 Mudcracks,64
1.4 Stratigraphy,3 4.7 Erosionalsedimentarystructures,65
1.5 Thestructureofthisbook,4 4.8 Terminologyforsedimentarystructures
Furtherreading,4 andbeds,66
4.9 Sedimentarystructuresandsedimentary
2 TERRIGENOUS environments,68
CLASTIC SEDIMENTS: GRAVEL, Furtherreading,68
SAND AND MUD, 5
2.1 Classificationofsedimentsandsedimentary 5 FIELD SEDIMENTOLOGY, FACIES
rocks,5 AND ENVIRONMENTS, 69
2.2 Gravelandconglomerate,7 5.1 Fieldsedimentology,69
2.3 Sandandsandstone,10 5.2 Graphicsedimentarylogs,70
2.4 Clay,siltandmudrock,21 5.3 Palaeocurrents,75
2.5 Texturesandanalysisofterrigenousclastic 5.4 Collectionofrocksamples,78
sedimentaryrocks,23 5.5 Descriptionofcore,79
2.6 Terrigenousclasticsediments:summary,27 5.6 Interpretingpastdepositional
Furtherreading,27 environments,80
5.7 Reconstructingpalaeoenvironmentsinspace
3 BIOGENIC, CHEMICAL AND andtime,84
VOLCANOGENIC SEDIMENTS, 28 5.8 Summary:faciesandenvironments,85
3.1 Limestone,28 Furtherreading,86
3.2 Evaporiteminerals,36
3.3 Cherts,38 6 CONTINENTS: SOURCES OF
3.4 Sedimentaryphosphates,38 SEDIMENT, 87
3.5 Sedimentaryironstone,38 6.1 Fromsourceofsedimenttoformation
3.6 Carbonaceous(organic)deposits,40 ofstrata,87
3.7 Volcaniclasticsedimentaryrocks,41 6.2 Mountain-buildingprocesses,88
Furtherreading,43 6.3 Globalclimate,88
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vi Contents
6.4 Weatheringprocesses,89 10.7 Recognitionoflacustrinefacies,161
6.5 Erosionandtransport,93 Furtherreading,161
6.6 Denudationandlandscapeevolution,95
6.7 Tectonicsanddenudation,99 11 THE MARINE REALM:MORPHOLOGY
6.8 Measuringratesofdenudation,100 AND PROCESSES, 163
6.9 Denudationandsedimentsupply:summary,101 11.1 Divisionsofthemarinerealm,163
Furtherreading,101 11.2 Tides,165
11.3 Waveandstormprocesses,169
7 GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS, 102 11.4 Thermo-halineandgeostrophic
7.1 Distributionofglacialenvironments,102 currents,170
7.2 Glacialice,104 11.5 Chemicalandbiochemicalsedimentation
7.3 Glaciers,105 inoceans,170
7.4 Continentalglacialdeposition,107 11.6 Marinefossils,172
7.5 Marineglacialenvironments,110 11.7 Tracefossils,173
7.6 Distributionofglacialdeposits,112 11.8 Marineenvironments:summary,178
7.7 Ice,climateandtectonics,112 Furtherreading,178
7.8 Summaryofglacialenvironments,113
Furtherreading,113 12 DELTAS, 179
12.1 Rivermouths,deltasandestuaries,179
8 AEOLIAN ENVIRONMENTS, 114 12.2 Typesofdelta,179
8.1 Aeoliantransport,114 12.3 Deltaenvironmentsandsuccessions,182
8.2 Desertsandergs,116 12.4 Variationsindeltamorphology
8.3 Characteristicsofwind-blownparticles,116 andfacies,184
8.4 Aeolianbedforms,118 12.5 Deltaiccyclesandstratigraphy,193
8.5 Desertenvironments,120 12.6 Syndepositionaldeformation
8.6 Aeoliandepositsoutsidedeserts,126 indeltas,195
8.7 Summary,127 12.7 Recognitionofdeltaicdeposits,196
Furtherreading,127 Furtherreading,198
9 RIVERS AND ALLUVIAL FANS, 129 13 CLASTIC COASTS AND
9.1 Fluvialandalluvialsystems,129 ESTUARIES, 199
9.2 Riverforms,131 13.1 Coasts,199
9.3 Floodplaindeposition,139 13.2 Beaches,201
9.4 Patternsinfluvialdeposits,139 13.3 Barrierandlagoonsystems,203
9.5 Alluvialfans,141 13.4 Tidesandcoastalsystems,206
9.6 Fossilsinfluvialandalluvial 13.5 Coastalsuccessions,207
environments,146 13.6 Estuaries,207
9.7 Soilsandpalaeosols,146 13.7 Fossilsincoastalandestuarine
9.8 Fluvialandalluvialfandeposition: environments,212
summary,149 Furtherreading,214
Furtherreading,149
14 SHALLOW SANDY SEAS, 215
10 LAKES, 151 14.1 Shallowmarineenvironmentsofterrigenous
10.1 Lakesandlacustrineenvironments,151 clasticdeposition,215
10.2 Freshwaterlakes,153 14.2 Storm-dominatedshallowclasticseas,217
10.3 Salinelakes,157 14.3 Tide-dominatedclasticshallowseas,220
10.4 Ephemerallakes,158 14.4 Responsestochangeinsealevel,222
10.5 Controlsonlacustrinedeposition,160 14.5 Criteriafortherecognitionofsandy
10.6 Lifeinlakesandfossilsinlacustrine shallow-marinesediments,223
deposits,160 Furtherreading,224
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Contents vii
15 SHALLOW MARINE 19 STRATIGRAPHY: CONCEPTS
CARBONATE AND EVAPORITE AND LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY, 297
ENVIRONMENTS, 225 19.1 Geologicaltime,297
15.1 Carbonateandevaporitedepositional 19.2 Stratigraphicunits,301
environments,225 19.3 Lithostratigraphy,302
15.2 Coastalcarbonateandevaporite 19.4 Applicationsoflithostratigraphy,306
environments,228 Furtherreading,310
15.3 Shallowmarinecarbonateenvironments,233
15.4 Typesofcarbonateplatform,237 20 BIOSTRATIGRAPHY, 311
15.5 Marineevaporites,242 20.1 Fossilsandstratigraphy,311
15.6 Mixedcarbonate–clasticenvironments,245 20.2 Classificationoforganisms,312
Furtherreading,245 20.3 Evolutionarytrends,314
20.4 Biozonesandzonefossils,315
16 DEEP MARINE ENVIRONMENTS, 247 20.5 Taxausedinbiostratigraphy,318
16.1 Oceanbasins,247 20.6 Biostratigraphiccorrelation,321
16.2 Submarinefans,250 20.7 Biostratigraphyinrelationtoother
16.3 Slopeaprons,256 stratigraphictechniques,322
16.4 Contourites,257 Furtherreading,323
16.5 Oceanicsediments,258
16.6 Fossilsindeepoceansediments,261 21 DATING AND CORRELATION
16.7 Recognitionofdeepoceandeposits: TECHNIQUES, 324
summary,261 21.1 Datingandcorrelationtechniques,324
Furtherreading,262 21.2 Radiometricdating,325
21.3 Otherisotopicandchemicaltechniques,329
17 VOLCANIC ROCKS AND 21.4 Magnetostratigraphy,330
SEDIMENTS, 263 21.5 DatingintheQuaternary,332
17.1 Volcanicrocksandsediment,263 Furtherreading,334
17.2 Transportanddepositionofvolcaniclastic
material,265 22 SUBSURFACE STRATIGRAPHY
17.3 Eruptionstyles,268 AND SEDIMENTOLOGY, 335
17.4 Faciesassociationsinvolcanic 22.1 Introductiontosubsurfacestratigraphyand
successions,269 sedimentology,335
17.5 Volcanicmaterialinotherenvironments,271 22.2 Seismicreflectiondata,336
17.6 VolcanicrocksinEarthhistory,271 22.3 Boreholestratigraphyandsedimentology,341
17.7 Recognitionofvolcanicdeposits: 22.4 Geophysicallogging,343
summary,272 22.5 Subsurfacefaciesandbasinanalysis,348
Furtherreading,273 Furtherreading,348
18 POST-DEPOSITIONAL STRUCTURES 23 SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY AND
AND DIAGENESIS, 274 SEA-LEVEL CHANGES, 349
18.1 Post-depositionalmodificationof 23.1 Sea-levelchangesandsedimentation,349
sedimentarylayers,274 23.2 Depositionalsequencesandsystems
18.2 Diageneticprocesses,279 tracts,357
18.3 Clasticdiagenesis,285 23.3 Parasequences:componentsofsystems
18.4 Carbonatediagenesis,287 tracts,362
18.5 Post-depositionalchangesto 23.4 Carbonatesequencestratigraphy,365
evaporites,291 23.5 Sequencestratigraphyinnon-marine
18.6 Diagenesisofvolcaniclasticsediments,291 basins,368
18.7 Formationofcoal,oilandgas,292 23.6 Alternativeschemesinsequence
Furtherreading,296 stratigraphy,368
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viii Contents
23.7 Applicationsofsequencestratigraphy,369 24.5 Basinsrelatedtostrike-sliptectonics,391
23.8 Causesofsea-levelfluctuations,373 24.6 Complexandhybridbasins,392
23.9 Sequencestratigraphy:summary,380 24.7 Therecordoftectonicsinstratigraphy,393
Furtherreading,380 24.8 Sedimentarybasinanalysis,393
24.9 Thesedimentaryrecord,397
24 SEDIMENTARY BASINS, 381 Furtherreading,397
24.1 Controlsonsedimentaccumulation,381
24.2 Basinsrelatedtolithosphericextension,384 References,398
24.3 Basinsrelatedtosubduction,387
24.4 Basinsrelatedtocrustalloading,390 Index,411
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Preface
There is pleasing symmetry about the fact that the complement the more numerical treatment of the
backboneofthefirsteditionofthisbookwaswritten topicsprovidedbybookssuchasLeeder(1999).Sedi-
withintheAntarcticCircleingapsbetweenfieldwork mentaryprocessesarecoveredinmoredetailintexts
with the British Antarctic Survey, while the bulk of suchasAllen(1997)andamuchmoredetailedanal-
thissecond edition has beenwritten from within the ysis of sedimentary environments and facies is pro-
ArcticCircleduringmytenureofa2-yearpositionas videdbyReading(1996).Foramorecomprehensive
ProfessorofGeologyattheUniversityCentreonSval- treatmentofsomeaspectsofstratigraphybookssuch
bard. It is not that I have any great affinity for the asCoe(2003)arerecommended.
polarregions,itjustseemsthatIhavealmostliterally
gone to the ends of the Earth to find the peace and
quiet that I need to write a book. Between my DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
sojournsinthesepolarregions10yearshavepassed,
andbothsedimentologyandstratigraphyhavemoved Thisbookdoesnotincludeaglossary,butinsteaditis
onenoughforathoroughupdateofthematerialtobe intended that terminology is explained and, where
required. Just as importantly, technology has moved necessary, defined in context within the text. The
on,andIcanprovideamuchmoresatisfyingrangeof first occurrence ofatechnicaltermis usually castin
illustrative material in digital form on a CD included bolditalics,anditisatthispointthatanexplanation
withthetext.Geologyisawonderfullyvisualscience, isprovided.Tofindthemeaningofaterm,thereader
anditisbestappreciatedatfirsthandinthefield,but should consult the index and go to its first listed
photographsofexamplescanalsoaidunderstanding. occurrence. There are differences of opinion about
I am an unashamed geo-tourist, always looking for some terminology, but it is beyond the scope of this
yet another example of a geological phenomenon, texttoprovidediscussionoftheissues:inmostcases
whetheronfieldworkoronholiday.Thephotographs themostbroadlyacceptedviewhasbeenadopted;in
used in this book and accompanying CD-ROM were others simplicity and consistency within the book
takenoveraperiodof20yearsandincludeexamples havetakenprecedence.
frommany‘corners’oftheglobe.
REFERENCES
AN UNDERGRADUATE TEXT
Thereferenceschosenarenotintendedtobecompre-
This book has been written for students who are hensive for a topic, but merely a selection of a few
studying geology at university and it is intended to relatively recent publications that can be used as a
provide them with an introduction to sedimentology starting point for further information. Older sources
andstratigraphy.Itishopedthatthetextisaccessible are cited where these provide important primary
to those who are completely new to the subject and accountsofatopic.Attheendofeachchapterthere
thatitwillalsoprovideabackgroundinconceptsand is a list of suggested further reading materials: these
terminology used in more advanced work. The are mainly recent textbooks, compilations of papers
approach is largely descriptive and is intended to in special publications and key review papers and