Schaum's Outline Theory And Problems of Beginning Chemistry

361 Pages·2004·4.668 MB·English

by  Dave E Goldberg

SCHAUM’S
OUTLINE OF
Theory and Problems of
BEGINNING
CHEMISTRY
Third Edition
David E. Goldberg, Ph.D.
ProfessorofChemistry
BrooklynCollege
CityUniversityofNewYork
Schaum’s Outline Series
McGRAW-HILL
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Copyright © 2005, 1999, 1991 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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DOI: 10.1036/0071466282
PREFACE
Thisbookisdesignedtohelpstudentsdowellintheirfirstchemistrycourse,especiallythosewhohavelittle
or no chemistry background. It can be used effectively in a course preparatory to a general college chemistry
courseaswellasinacourseinchemistryforliberalartsstudents.Itshouldalsoprovideadditionalassistanceto
studentsinthefirstsemesterofachemistrycoursefornursesandothersinthealliedhealthfields.Itwillprove
tobeofvalueinahighschoolchemistrycourseandinageneralchemistrycourseformajors.
The book aims to help the student develop both problem-solving skills and skill in precise reading and
interpreting scientific problems and questions. Analogies to everyday life introduce certain types of problems
tomaketheunderlyingprincipleslessabstract.Manyoftheproblemsweredevisedtoclarifyparticularpoints
oftenconfusedbybeginningstudents.Toensuremastery,thebookoftenpresentsproblemsinparts,thenasks
thesamequestionasanentity,toseeifthestudentcandothepartswithouttheaidofthefragmentedquestion.
Itprovidessomefiguresthathaveprovedhelpfultoagenerationofstudents.
TheauthorgratefullyacknowledgesthehelpoftheeditorsatMcGraw-Hill.
DAVIDE.GOLDBERG
iii
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TO THE STUDENT
This book is designed to help you understand chemistry fundamentals. Learning chemistry requires that you
master chemical terminology and be able to perform calculations with ease. Toward these ends, many of the
examplesandproblemsareformulatedtoalertyoutoquestionsthatsounddifferentbutareactuallythesame
(Problem3.16forexample)orquestionsthataredifferentbutsoundverysimilar(Problems5.13and7.25,for
example). You should not attempt to memorize the solutions to the problems. (There is enough to memorize,
withoutthat.)Instead,youmusttrytounderstandtheconceptsinvolved.Yourinstructorandtextsusuallyteach
generalities(e.g.,Atomsofallmaingroupelementsexceptnoblegaseshavethenumberofoutermostelectrons
equal to their group number.), but the instructor asks specific questions on exams (e.g., How many outermost
electronsarethereinaphosphorusatom?)Youmustnotonlyknowtheprinciple,butalsoinwhatsituationsit
applies.
Youmustpracticebyworkingmanyproblems,becauseinadditiontotheprinciples,youmustgetaccustomed
tothemanydetailsinvolvedinsolvingproblemscorrectly.Thekeytosuccessinchemistryisworkingverymany
problems!Togetthemostfromthisbook,usea5×8cardtocoverupthesolutionswhileyouaredoingthe
problems. Do not look at the answer first. It is easy to convince yourself that you know how to do a problem
bylookingattheanswer,butgeneratingtheansweryourself,asyoumustdoonexams,isnotthesame.After
youhavefinished,compareyourresultwiththeanswergiven.Ifthemethoddiffers,itdoesnotmeanthatyour
methodisnecessarilyincorrect.Ifyouransweristhesame,yourmethodisprobablycorrect.Otherwise,tryto
understandwhatthedifferenceis,andwhereyoumadeamistake,ifyoudidso.
Some of the problems given after the text are very short and/or very easy (Problems 5.12 and 5.14, for
example). They are designed to emphasize a particular point. After you get the correct answer, ask yourself
whysuchaquestionwasasked.Manyotherproblemsgiveanalogiestoeverydaylife,tohelpyouunderstanda
chemicalprinciple(Problems2.13with2.14,4.6,5.15with5.16,7.13through7.16and10.41,forexample).
Makesureyouunderstandthechemicalmeaningofthetermspresentedthroughoutthesemester.Forexample,
“significant figures” means something very different in chemical calculations than in economic discussions.
Specialtermsusedforthefirsttimeinthisbookwillbeitalicized.Wheneveryouencountersuchaterm,useit
repeatedlyuntilyouthoroughlyunderstanditsmeaning.Ifnecessary,usetheGlossarytofindthemeaningsof
unfamiliarterms.
Always use the proper units with measurable quantities. It makes quite a bit of difference if your pet is
4in.tallor4fttall!AfterChapter2,alwaysusethepropernumberofsignificantfiguresinyourcalculations.Do
yourselfafavorandusethesamesymbolsandabbreviationsforchemicalquantitiesthatareusedinthetext.If
youuseadifferentsymbol,youmightbecomeconfusedlaterwhenthatsymbolisusedforadifferentquantity.
Someoftheproblemsarestatedinparts.Afteryoudotheproblembysolvingthevariousparts,seeifyou
wouldknowhowtosolvethesameproblemifonlythelastpartwereasked.
Theconversionfigureonpage348showsalltheconversionspresentedinthebook.Asyouproceed,add
thecurrentconversionsfromthefiguretoyoursolutiontechniques.
v
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For more information about this title, click here
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Basic Concepts 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 TheElements 1
1.3 MatterandEnergy 2
1.4 Properties 3
1.5 ClassificationofMatter 3
1.6 RepresentationofElements 5
1.7 Laws,Hypotheses,andTheories 6
CHAPTER 2 Mathematical Methods in Chemistry 10
2.1 Introduction 10
2.2 Factor-LabelMethod 10
2.3 MetricSystem 12
2.4 ExponentialNumbers 16
2.5 SignificantDigits 17
2.6 Density 21
2.7 TemperatureScales 23
CHAPTER 3 Atoms and Atomic Masses 38
3.1 Introduction 38
3.2 AtomicTheory 38
3.3 AtomicMasses 39
3.4 AtomicStructure 40
3.5 Isotopes 41
3.6 PeriodicTable 42
Chapter 4 Electronic Configuration of the Atom 51
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 BohrTheory 51
4.3 QuantumNumbers 53
4.4 QuantumNumbersandEnergiesofElectrons 54
4.5 Shells,Subshells,andOrbitals 55
4.6 ShapesofOrbitals 58
4.7 BuildupPrinciple 58
4.8 ElectronicStructureandthePeriodicTable 60
vii
viii CONTENTS
Chapter 5 Chemical Bonding 67
5.1 Introduction 67
5.2 ChemicalFormulas 67
5.3 TheOctetRule 68
5.4 Ions 69
5.5 ElectronDotNotation 71
5.6 CovalentBonding 72
5.7 DistinctionBetweenIonicandCovalentBonding 74
5.8 PredictingtheNatureofBondinginCompounds 75
5.9 DetailedElectronicConfigurationsofIons(Optional) 76
Chapter 6 Inorganic Nomenclature 86
6.1 Introduction 86
6.2 BinaryCompoundsofNonmetals 87
6.3 NamingIonicCompounds 88
6.4 NamingInorganicAcids 93
6.5 AcidSalts 94
6.6 Hydrates 94
Chapter 7 Formula Calculations 102
7.1 Introduction 102
7.2 MoleculesandFormulaUnits 102
7.3 FormulaMasses 103
7.4 TheMole 103
7.5 PercentCompositionofCompounds 106
7.6 EmpiricalFormulas 107
7.7 MolecularFormulas 108
Chapter 8 Chemical Equations 120
8.1 Introduction 120
8.2 BalancingSimpleEquations 121
8.3 PredictingtheProductsofaReaction 122
Chapter 9 Net Ionic Equations 134
9.1 Introduction 134
9.2 WritingNetIonicEquations 134
Chapter 10 Stoichiometry 142
10.1 Mole-to-MoleCalculations 142
10.2 CalculationsInvolvingOtherQuantities 143
10.3 LimitingQuantities 144
10.4 CalculationsBasedonNetIonicEquations 147
10.5 HeatCapacityandHeatofReaction 147
CONTENTS ix
Chapter 11 Molarity 162
11.1 Introduction 162
11.2 MolarityCalculations 162
11.3 Titration 164
11.4 StoichiometryinSolution 166
Chapter 12 Gases 173
12.1 Introduction 173
12.2 PressureofGases 173
12.3 Boyle’sLaw 174
12.4 GraphicalRepresentationofData 175
12.5 Charles’Law 177
12.6 TheCombinedGasLaw 180
12.7 TheIdealGasLaw 181
12.8 Dalton’sLawofPartialPressures 183
Chapter 13 Kinetic Molecular Theory 195
13.1 Introduction 195
13.2 PostulatesoftheKineticMolecularTheory 195
13.3 ExplanationofGasPressure,Boyle’sLaw,andCharles’Law 196
13.4 Graham’sLaw 197
Chapter 14 Oxidation and Reduction 201
14.1 Introduction 201
14.2 AssigningOxidationNumbers 201
14.3 PeriodicRelationshipsofOxidationNumbers 203
14.4 OxidationNumbersinInorganicNomenclature 205
14.5 BalancingOxidation-ReductionEquations 205
14.6 Electrochemistry 209
Chapter 15 Solutions 219
15.1 QualitativeConcentrationTerms 219
15.2 Molality 219
15.3 MoleFraction 220
15.4 Equivalents 221
15.5 Normality 222
15.6 EquivalentMass 223
Chapter 16 Rates and Equilibrium 230
16.1 Introduction 230
16.2 RatesofChemicalReaction 230
16.3 ChemicalEquilibrium 232
16.4 EquilibriumConstants 234