Rechtsgeschichte Legal History

46 Pages·2017·7.51 MB·English

Rg
ZeitschriftdesMax-Planck-InstitutsfüreuropäischeRechtsgeschichte Rechts
JournaloftheMaxPlanckInstituteforEuropeanLegalHistory geschichte
Rechtsgeschichte
Legal History
www.rg.mpg.de
26
http://www.rg-rechtsgeschichte.de/rg26 Rg 2018 95–138
Zitiervorschlag:Rechtsgeschichte–LegalHistoryRg26(2018)
http://dx.doi.org/10.12946/rg26/095-138
Raja Sakrani*
_
The Dhimmī as the Other of Multiple Convivencias
in al-Andalus
Protection,Tolerance and Domination in Islamic Law
* KäteHamburgerKolleg»RechtalsKultur«,Bonn/Max-Planck-InstitutfüreuropäischeRechtsgeschichte,
FrankfurtamMain,[email protected]
DieserBeitragstehtuntereiner
CreativeCommonscc-by-nc-nd3.0
Abstract
The figure of d_himmī is certainly the most
emblematicjuristicfigureinthehistoryofIslamic
law.Strangely,italsohasthejuristicstatusofbeing
the most ambiguous and complex, as it lacks a
coherent, genuine legal shape and doctrine. Qu-
ranic references to d_himma or ahl al-kitāb (People
of the Book) complicate the landscape. However,
thed_himmī’sjuristiccorpushasplayedamajorrole
in organising the cohabitation, domination or
exclusionofnon-Muslimsinconqueredterritories
forcenturies.
Convivencia in al-Andalus represents a unique
experience in the history of Islamic law and Eu-
rope, the results of which are still felt today. But
what is to be learned from the former inclusion/
exclusion of d_himmī? This issue, linked to under-
standing ›otherness‹, is fundamental to studying
Convivencia and grasping its mechanisms. Mono-
theistic Others in Islam (Jews and Christians) can
thusteachusaboutIslamandguideusaswedo.
IberianConvivencia,seenasanarcissisticinjury
and repressed memory to this day, is a historical
and cultural chance to reflect upon and research
theSelfandtheOther.IfMuslimsinEuropetoday
considerthemselves,oftenunconsciously,asbeing
akindofd_himmī,itisbecauseIslamicdiscourseon
theSelfandtheOtherisprofoundlyinscribedinto
thisjuristicandhistoricalheritage.Understanding
facets of Convivencia/(de-)Convivencia from an
Arab-Islamic view requires examining d_himmī in
allstates:protected,tolerated,dominatedorperse-
cuted. Focusing on d_himmī’s legal status is meth-
odologically fruitful, as pitfalls in research based
solelyonIslamiclegaltextsareavoided.Itfurther
does justice to the often obscured human dimen-
sionofMuslimsandd_himmīlivingtogether.
Keywords: D_himmī, Convivencias, al-Andalus,
Islamiclaw,theOther
□×
Fokus focus
Raja Sakrani
_
The Dhimmī as the Other of Multiple Convivencias
in al-Andalus
Protection,Tolerance and Domination in Islamic Law
1 Introduction elsewhere? How, during the Middle Ages, were
Muslims able to live side-by-side or separate, im-
Who among us has not been gripped with passioned by love and hate for the ›Other‹, domi-
marvelandcuriositystandinginfrontoftheGreat nantordominated,togetheronEuropeansoilwith
Mosque of Córdoba, the Palacio Real Alcázar of thed_himmī,whoarenon-otherthanChristiansand
Sevilla,theAlhambrainGranadaortheMezquita- Jews? Which role was attributed, assumed or ne-
Iglesia del Salvador and Iglesia de San Román in gotiated by the one towards the other during the
Toledo? eight centuries that made both the soft and cruel
Who among ushasnot beenfloodedbywaves facetsofConvivenciapossible?
ofwonderfeelingthevibrationsofanAndalusian WhenIpublishedmyfirstarticleinthejournal
guitar,abrokenflamencovoicesingingoflossand Rechtsgeschichte in 2014, I did not know that be-
separation, or a »gipsy« who makes the ground yond the history and »The law of the [Muslim]
tremble under her feet with a defiant gaze? Who Other« in medieval Europe,1 what haunted me
among ushasnot been stoppedin their tracksby deep down was his alter ego, the non-Muslim,
the still visible traces of a »co-living« or a »co- the d_himmī. And whenThomas Duve later kind-
excluding« in present-day Andalucía, Toledo and ly proposed that I participate in the Convivencia
Fig.1.Mezquita-IglesiadelSalvador,Toledo Fig.2.IglesiadeSanRoman,Toledo
1 TheLawoftheOther.Anunknown IberianPeninsulauntiltoday.Em- questionofIslamicothernessinEu-
Islamicchapterinthelegalhistoryof phasiswasespeciallyputonthe ropeontheother.Sakrani(2014).
Europeis,infact,acrucialissuefora problemofEuropeanhistoriography
betterunderstandingofIslamicpasts –particularlyonthefieldoflegal
inEurope,fromtheconquestofthe historyontheonehand,andthe
RajaSakrani 95
Rg262018
research group at the Max Planck Institute for the few legal rules on d_himmī scattered here and
European Legal History,2 he unwittingly offered there in classical manuals on fiqh,3 Arab historio-
me the chance to enrich my own research and graphical chronicles and literary texts of all sorts,
ventureintothehistoryofIslamiclawinorderto withoutforgettingthefatāwāandcompilationsof
explore – with this buried desire – the enigmatic masāil or ‘amal (judicial cases and questions)4
and fascinating »theory« of d_himma in Islam.This typicaloftheIslamicWest(al-ġharbal-islāmī)?
essayisthefruitofaperpetualquestformeaning, That these questions interest me is one thing;
of modest scientific exploration that has had the thatIsharethemwithcolleagues,whoareincreas-
fortuneofbeingabletofeedoffthereflexivework ingly growing in number and working on the
of a team. It has benefited from a group dynamic status of d_himmī and the question of d_himma, is
that permitted – thanksto itsinterdisciplinarity– another. However, the fact that my work on »the
casting a different glance on personal questions theory«ofd_himma–ifsuchatheoryexists–should
andincessantlyrenewing itsresearchproblems.It becomefundamentallyanchoredintheexperience
is also an attempt to overcome, to break free, as of Convivencia on the Iberian Peninsula changes
much as possible, from the methodological con- matters completely. How come? There are only
finementimposedbyone’sowndiscipline. veryfewfoundationaljuridicaltextsextantonthe
The point of departure is a question that has statusofd_himmī.Weshallcomebacktothispoint.
stuckwithmesinceIfirstbecameinterestedinthe These texts were born, for the most part, in a
history of Islamic law and, in particular, in other- specific geopolitical and historical context in Ara-
nesswithinArabicculture:WhyhaveMuslimlegal bia – and are therefore far removed from the
scholars never taken it upon themselves to con- Iberian Peninsula. By contrast, it is particularly
struct a proper »theory« on d_himma, or ahl al thed_himmaofMedievalSpainwhodoesnotcease
d_himma (people of d_himma), even at moments to intrigue researchers due to certain specific
when the Islamic empire extended from India traits.5 To access them, we have a privileged key:
and the borders of Asia to all of Arabia, all the Convivencia, even if it may still elicit historical
way to the Iberian Peninsula and the South of debatesandideologicalpolemics.
Europe,passingthroughNorthernAfrica?Whyare
2 Theproject›Convivencia:Iberianto applicationofQuranicprescriptions anepistemologicalperspective,in-
GlobalDynamics,500–1750‹iscar- posedenormousproblems.Tobegin cludingthecritiqueofthecolonial
riedoutbyaninterdisciplinary with,thereistheissueofsilence. perceptionofIslamicsources,seethe
workinggroup.Itisbeingpursuedby Theapplicationofseveralprescrip- analysisbyCharnay(2008)9–29.See
fourMaxPlanckInstitutes:TheMax tionsthemselvesislikewiseproblem- alsotheoriginalstudybyBenkheira
PlanckInstituteforEuropeanLegal atic:non-explicitversesonthisorthat (1997).
History(Frankfurt),theMaxPlanck question,othersthatlackprecision. 4 Thistypeofjuridicalliteraturewillbe
InstituteforHistoryofScience(Ber- Inshort,itwasnecessarytofillin analyzedlaterinthisarticle.
lin),theMaxPlanckInstituteforthe lacunaeandthereforeeithercreate 5 AccordingtotheArabpointofview,
HistoryofArt(Florence)andtheMax newrulesorfixateatheological-legal theAndalusianexperienceiswritten
PlanckInstituteforSocialAnthro- procedurepermittingthededuction notonlyinthenostalgicveinofpo-
pology(Halle).DavidNirenberg oflegalrules.Thisprocessculminates eticsandAndalusianmusic,bethey
fromChicagoisalsoinvolved. inthefamoustheoryoflegalsources Arabicornot;aboveall,itrecounts
3 Toputitinverysimpleterms:Fiqhisa inIslamiclaw:thesunna(thetradi- whatonecalls»thenobletimes«(al-
creationbyMuslimjuriststhatrecalls tionoftheProphetMuhammad)ac- zamanual’nnabīl),thatistosaythis
RomanandCommonLawjurispru- cordingtotheQuran;al-qiyās,thatis episodethatmarkedArabhistory,
dence.Thismakestheenormous tosaytheanalogiesofthejurists,and identityandcollectiveimagination.
bodyoflawwecallfiqhamixtureof finallyal-ijmā‘,whichmeansthe AnAndalusianepisodethatallowed
generalprinciplesandtheories,legal consensusofthemostqualified(the Arabicculturetogivethebestof
fictions,etc.(withoutexpectinga ‘ulamā)oftheIslamicumma. itself,toblossombyacceptingdiffer-
systematizationthatencompassesthe Theliteratureonlegalsourcesisim- ence,hybridityandopennesstowards
entireIslamicnormativesystem)on mense.Seejustbywayofexample: theOther,betheyd_himmīornot–in
theonehand,andcasuistrefinement Hallaq(1985,1986);Al-Wahhâb otherwords,thiscapacityofcumvi-
ontheother.Ultimately,theQuran Khallâf(2008);AldeebAbu- vereandofConvivencia.
onlycontainsveryfewexplicitrules Sahlieh(2005)55–201;Badr(1965).
inthelegaldimension.Afterthe Fromananthropologicalperspective
deathoftheProphet,itdidnottake andonthepremisesforsourcefor-
Muslimslongtodiscoverthatthe mationsee:Bleuchot(2000).From
96 TheD_himmīastheOtherofMultipleConvivenciasinal-Andalus
Fokus focus
Ipostulatethefollowing:Toattempttounder- doxically emerged via conquest.6 I advance the
stand the facets of Convivencia/de-Convivencia argument that Andalusian leadership paved the
from an Arabo-Islamic perspective, one must first way for Convivencia through the legal framework
study d_himmī »in all its states«: the protected, established by the contract of d_himma (‘aqd al-
tolerated, dominated or even persecuted d_himmī. d_himma). In other words: the first base of Conviv-
The manner of re-centering the research on the encia was contractual, a judicial basis par excel-
legal status of d_himmī and the rules that frame lence, even if this legal instrument was rooted in
d_himmaviaConvivencia(andviceversa),isfruitful religiouscommands.Lookingmoreclosely,wesee
on the methodological level in the sense that it that Muslim leadership, by virtue of this legal
allowsthepitfallsofpurelylegalresearchfounded arsenalofd_himma,wascrucialformaintainingan
solelyonIslamiclegaltextstobeavoided.Further, environmentofwhatIwouldliketocallactiveco-
itisclearlymultidisciplinaryanddoesjusticetothe living (a kind of quasi-citizenship) and passive co-
living, human dimension, which is almost always living(asecond-classcitizenstatus),throughdevis-
obscured,oflivingtogetherbetweenMuslimsand ingitslegal,economicandsocietalframeworks.
d_himmī. The second key aspect of Muslim leadership is
From 711, the year of the Islamic conquest of the legal status of d_himmī, a doctrinal juristic
the Iberian Peninsula, until 1492, the date of the construction based on the Quranic qualification
fall of Granada and the victory of the Catholic ofChristiansandJewsasahlal-Kitāb(Peopleofthe
kings, the three Abrahamic religions rubbed Book). Because of their monotheism, Muslims
shoulders despite their animosity, bitterness and have the duty to protect them under certain con-
competitiveness.They were even able to create a ditions. More than a simple moral responsibility,
uniquecivilizationalandhumanexperiencethatis protection of Christians and Jews7 is a religious
markedbythecapacityoftranslatingitselfintothe imperative.D_himmīmeansthe»protected«.Thus,it
language of the Other, into its culture, at times becomesclearthattheQuranicperceptionheavily
evenintoitsreligionanditssocietalprojects.Itwas guidedMuslimscholarsinbuildinganembryonic
an era of interactions in which opportunities for theory of d_himma. Yet a more complex picture
exchange were abundant, from economics to ar- emerges when looking at the first Islamic docu-
chitecture to science, poetry and intermarriage. It ments related to this protection. Available histor-
was marked by permission and prohibition, sub- ical and legal texts mention very few original
mission and transgression, fluid or rigid cultural sources and are not always explicit or systematic.
andreligiousfrontiers,proximityanddistance–in It seems that its roots reach back to Prophet
short, by a complex network of situations for Muhammad’sera.
engaging with the Other through all human po- The final factor of d_himma in the Iberian Pen-
tential:emotionsandtheircontradictions,lawand insulathatIwouldliketotouchuponisMuslims’
its functions, religion in its essence and in its ability at the time to treat the d_himmī both as an
manifestations. inferiorbeingsubjectedtoIslamicdomination(in
ItshouldimmediatelybepointedoutthatCon- this regard, the Quranic interpretation played a
vivencia,withitsmultiplefacetsanditstendencies majorrole),andasanextensionofthe›Self‹andan
towards peaceful cohabitation as well as violent integral part of the umma. Missing this point
exclusion,wasaremarkableperiodofinterdepend- would render one unable to understand why the
enceessentiallythankstoanewtypeofleadership d_himmīwereconsideredanintegralpartofdāral-
thatwaspreviouslyunknowninEuropeandpara- Islamand,inthissenseofsolidaritywithMuslims,
6 Thisparadox,whichaffectsthevery turies.Itwasatypeofcohabitation February3,2017,thisissuewasad-
premiseofthebirthofConvivencia, thatattemptedtofaceChristian dressedanddiscussed.Inanyevent,
waspointedoutinsomestudies dominationanddiscrimination.Re- whatisofinterestforthepurposeof
aboutConvivencia.Seeespecially: searchongypsiesasaminoritygroup thepresentarticleisthefollowing
Collins(1983)146ff.;Glick(1979) duringtheperiodofmedievalCon- question:Weregypsiesconsidered
165–193. vivenciadeservesmoreattentionand d_himmībyMuslims?Ongypsiesin
7 Itisoftenforgottenthattheinterac- shallbeexploredinthefuture.Dur- Europesee:Bogdal(2014).
tionbetweenMuslimsandgypsies ingtheworkshop›ConvivenciaTo-
wasparticularlyinteresting,espe- day‹,organizedbytheMPIforEuro-
ciallybetweenthe15thand17thcen- peanLegalHistoryinFrankfurton
RajaSakrani 97
Rg262018
Fig.3.PuenteMariaCristina,inauguraciónCapitalidadEuropea
why they were subject to Islamic law from a us as we get to know it better. For Islam – in the
perception of protection rather than submission. plural–desperatelyneedstoknowitself.Itsmedi-
Lastly,thequestionstillremainsastowhyMuslims evalIberianexperience,felttothisdayasanarcis-
wereobligatedtoliberated_himmīcapturedbythe sistic injury and repressed memory, is a historical
enemyandpaytheirransomjustastheywouldfor andculturalchancethatallowsthedoortoreflec-
acapturedMuslim. tion and scientific research of the Self and the
What can we learn from the inclusion/exclu- Othertobere-opened.
sionfactorintheconceptofd_himmaatthattime– InthecontextofpostArab-revolutions,intellec-
andperhapsapplyitto ourtime?Thisquestionis tualsandreligiousfigures,aswellasordinaryArab
fundamentaltothestudyofConvivencia–anditis citizens, are hoping to at least retrieve, if not
alsocrucialforthehistoryoflaw,beitEuropeanor reconstruct their own Convivencia: T_aqāfat al-
Islamic.Butaboveall,itisaquestionlinkedtothe ta‘āyuš8 (culture of living together). Many exam-
problem of Otherness. The Other, or more pre- ples of this ta‘āyuš can be mentioned.The Great
cisely the monotheistic Other in Islam, therefore Mosque of Testour, a typical Andalusian small
becomeskeytobetterunderstandingd_himmaand town in northernTunisia, representsa nice exten-
the mechanisms of Convivencia, whether in the sion of the Andalusian Convivencia in Northern
IberianPeninsulaorelsewhere.Itisthemonothe- Africa after the expulsion of the Moriscos and the
isticOtherthatcanteachusaboutIslamandguide Jews9
8 Letmeremarkthatthesemanticsare withinIslam,evenifitsarticulationis followingSpanishtechniques,its
veryrevealing:thewordta‘āuš,which stillquasi-embryonicandnotalways clockthatturnscounter-clockwise,
isakindofdirecttranslationofCon- explicit.Adiscussedanddreamt-of anditsnumerousJewishandMuslim
vivencia,isfairlyrecent.Itsusageis ArabConvivenciaexpressesanintel- marabout,theinhabitantsofTestour
increasinglygeneralizedwithrefer- lectualeffervescencethatsurvived maintainedaveryparticularAndalu-
encetotasāmuh.,whichmeanstoler- post-revolutionarydisillusionment, sianhabitus:theirownConvivencia.
ance,atermthathasbeenusedfora wars,destructionandself-destruc- TheiridentityisJudeo-MuslimAn-
longtime,evenbydictatorsinpower, tion. dalusianbeforeitisTunisian.Thisis
afterthedecolonization,intheguise 9 TestourwasfoundedbyJewish-Mus- representedthroughgesturesthatas-
ofpoliticalpropaganda.ThisConvi- limAndalusianswhofledtothis surethevisitoroftheirwelcomed-
venciacurrentlyhasanenormous countryaftertheReconquista.Apart ness,suchasinvitingthemtopartake
theologicalandlegaldimension fromitsGreatMosqueconstructed intheirdishes,music,festivities,
98 TheD_himmīastheOtherofMultipleConvivenciasinal-Andalus
Fokus focus
For if the bloody wars in the Middle East foundedontheelimination–withinIslamitself–
following the first Iraq War only succeeded in of »bad Muslims« who do not adhere to its doc-
destroyingthesocialtissueincludingthedifferent trine.Nevertheless,thecomplexregionalandglob-
non-Islamiccommunitiesandminorities,post-rev- algeopoliticalcontext10aswellasthedelusionsof
olutionarywarsandISISareincessantlysmashing certain powers in the West who, in all directions,
any form of coexistence between Muslims and areplayingdangerousgameswithWahhabismand
non-Muslims to pieces (Christians,Yazidis, Assyr- radicalIslam,11aredoinganythingbutsmoothing
ians, Bahā’í, Kurds, etc.). Wahhābī Islam is un- out relationships and lending the Arab debate on
questionably the prime culprit, as its ideology is Convivenciaanydimensionsthataredifferentfrom
Fig.4.TheGreatMosqueofTestour Fig.5.DetailoftheGreatMosqueofTestour
smellsandflavorsoftheAndalusiaof prayer,andamih.rābtoppedbya Frenchpoliticswho,toescapefrom
yesteryear.Thismosquewascon- triangularpedimentborrowedfrom thefinancialcrisis,demandaidfora
structedintheearly17thcenturyby theartofItalian-SpanishRenaissance. countrythatfostersradicalIslam;fi-
MuhammedTagharino,aMorisco Thisensemblereunitestoreinforce nancesthesatelliteTVchannelAl-
withoriginsinAragonwhoarrivedin theoriginalcharacterofthebuilding Jazeera;propagateshatredandradi-
TunisiawiththesecondwaveofAn- anditsuniversalvocation. calizationthroughouttheworld;has
dalusianimmigration.Thefirstwave 10 TheIslamicStateDaeshdoesnotonly »blownout«themembersofthe
arrivedin1610andbuiltthefirst wageitswarswiththeQuranandin »ArabSpring«toavoidagreaterrev-
nucleusofthecityalongwithitsfirst thenameofIslam–itlives,propa- olution;and,worstofall,offersbil-
quarterRh.ibatal-Andalus.Itwasfol- gatesandevenentersEuropean lionstoFrancetopurchasethefoot-
lowedbythequarterofTagharino, groundthankstoacomplexglobal ballclubParisSaint-Germain,invest
builtatthesametimeasthemosque, networkofmafia-likestructuresand intheFrenchrealestatemarketand
andthequarterofH.ara,occupiedby tiesofallkindswhichalsoinvolve–it acquirecapitalincompaniestofi-
theJewishcommunitythataccom- mustbesaid–theWest:Thesaleof nance,firstandforemost,plansto
paniedtheexpelledMuslimsintheir petroleumtowhomeverwillpay;the rescuethebanlieues.Iftheproduction
painfulfate.Asidefromtilesand opensaleofstolenartandhistoryof ofradicalsandterroristsispartofthe
bricksfabricatedlocallybyAndalu- anentiredesecratedcivilization,a rescueplan,themissionhasbeen
sians,Tagharinousedstonesextracted millennia-oldcivilizationthatisnot quitesuccessful!Andwithallthis,
fromRomanruinslocatedinsituto solelyIslamic;thekidnappingorsale FranceisnotanisolatedcaseinEu-
constructtheGreatMosque.Thisel- ofchildrefugeestocriminalpedo- rope.SaudiArabiaplaysasimilarrole
egantandimpressivemosquerises phileorslaveryringsonEuropean intheregionandevenonaglobal
intothesky,withitsoctagonalmin- soil,etc.…thehorrorknowsno level.Seeinthesamesensetheexcel-
aretintheimageoftowersdominat- limits. lentsociopoliticalanalysisby
ingancientSpanishchurches,with 11 See,forexample,theverypertinent Adraoui(2013),withaniceintro-
twostarsofDavid–atestamenttothe analysisbyBeau/Bourget(2013).Le ductionbyGillesKepel.
diversityofthepopulationofTestour villainpetitQatar.Cetamiquinous
–tileroofing,asun-dialinthemiddle veutdumal,denouncing–inthecase
ofthepatiothatindicatesthehoursof ofFrance–thoseresponsiblewithin
RajaSakrani 99
Rg262018
those familiar in Europe.12 Such dimensions are sources so asto obtain a more complete image of
deeplytiedfirsttotheupheavalofArabrevolutions d_himma. Having thus sketched the legal status of
and then to the drama of the unspeakable terror d_himmī, I will construct my juristic and socio-
and destruction caused by the Islamic State that historical research in the third part around the
dominates a landscape of broken dreams, partic- influenceofthisconceptonthelegalrulesregard-
ularly in Syria,Yemen and Libya. In post-revolu- ingd_himmīanddecodeConvivenciadynamicsinal-
tionary Arab and post-colonial socities alike, the Andalus in light of judicial cases and fatāwā.
questionof Otherness–theEuropeanbutalsothe Finally, the figure of d_himmī as the monotheistic
non-MuslimOtherintheArabicWorld–iscrucial. Other will be questioned, referring to the con-
This is how my proposal to integrate the ques- struction of Islamic identity and the current Is-
tionofOthernessbothasananalyticaltoolandasa lamic discourse on the Self and the Other partic-
conceptualgrid,whichallowsabetterunderstand- ularly in Europe, where millions of Muslimscon-
ingofthetheoryofd_himma,isjustified. siderthemselves,inawayandoftenunconsciously,
This article is structured as follows: In the first asbeingakindofd_himmī.13
part, I will try to sharpen the reader’s awareness
of the methodological problems one encoun-
ters while researching Convivencia from a histo- 2 Convivencia and d_himma: Which elective
riographicalperspective.Thesecondpartthenpres- affinities?
ents a brief summary of the current state of re-
searchond_himma.Next,theaccentwillbeplaced To attempt to answer this question, it suffices
on different aspects of the legal status of d_himmī, to ask why most studies on Convivencia – apart
fromthe.sah.īfatal-Medinatosourcesregardingthe from a few exceptions – either focus on violence
practiceofd_himma,includingalsothefoundation- and massacres, thereby often concluding that the
al textson the payment of gˇizya.The analysiswill former was nothing more than a myth, or, con-
make use of several reading lenses following dis- versely,exhibitapenchantfor»romanticizing«the
ciplines pertinent to this research, while likewise cohabitationbetweenthethreeculturesinmedie-
cross-checkingwithjuridicalandhistoriographical valSpain.Islamisthereforeeither »romanticized«
12 Foraphilosophicalapproachfroman 1492.Thereligiousandculturalcon- AsforlosMoriscos,theconsequences
Arabo-Islamicperspectiveofliving versionoftheother›Other‹,thecon- weremuchmorecomplex.Those
together,seeforexample:Dhouib versionthroughswordandcrossof whoremainedorsurvivedinEurope
(2011). theindigenouspopulaceofthe dispersed,»evaporated«even,astheir
13 »The›Kulturbedeutung‹ofConviven- Americasandthetransferofanentire traceshavebeenlost.Whathasbe-
ciagoesbeyondtheobviousoreven normativearsenalsprangfromthe comeofthem?Thisisaquestion
fashionableuseofsemantics.Itex- Iberianexperience.Itwasessentially askedbymoreandmorestudies.
pressesaprofoundneedforchange. determinedaftertheforcedconver- See:Sakrani(2014);Valensi(2012);
Andjustlikethehistoryoftherela- sionduringtheReconquistawiththe Dakhlia/Vincent(2011);Dakhlia/
tions,byturnsfruitfulorhostileviz. distinctionoftheIberian›Other‹, Kaiser(2013).ThedramaofWorld
violent,betweenJewsandMuslims JewishandMuslim,whodespite WarII,thecreationoftheIsraeliState
evolvedfromthefirstlinksbetween forcedconversion,didnot›succeed‹ andthewavesofSephardicJews
JewishtribesinArabiaandthe inbeingacceptedasa›goodnew‹ leavingMorocco,AlgeriaandTunisia
ProphetMuhammeduptorecent Christianora›good‹Europeanciti- followingthe1960shavenotledto
conflictsintheMiddleEastviathe zen«.Sakrani(2016)15f.Neitherthe thesamerepercussionsastheAnda-
GoldenAgeofthecivilizationsof SephardicJewsandtheirdescendants lusiantragedyofthe16thcentury.
CórdobaandBagdad,thehistoryof norlosMoriscosandtheirdescendants TherecentSpanishlawontheoption
therelationsbetweenMuslimsand norlosIndiosandtheirdescendants ofSpanishnationalityondescendents
Europe,andbyextensionallofthe haverecoveredfromthisdramathat ofSephardicJewsposesmorethan
West,necessarilypassestheAndalu- isatplay.FollowingthefallofGran- onequestionanddoesnotceaseto
sianperiod.Apivotalandfounda- adain1492andtheprogressiveper- stokethedebatebetweenapproval
tionalmomentforEuropeanmod- secutionofMuslimsandJewsupto andcriticism.See:Aragonesesin
ernityfollowsthereconquestof forcedconversionandexpulsion,part thisDossier:UsesofConvivenciaand
Granadain1492.Theconstructionof oftheAndalusianJewishpopulation FilosefardismoinSpanishLegalDis-
–inturn–ChristianandJudeo- fledtheIberianPeninsulaandsettled courses,200–219.
ChristianidentityinEurope,ofLatin intheMaghreb,whereastheremain-
AmericanidentityandofIslamic deressentiallydispersedthroughout
identityfollowsthefallofGranadain EuropeandtheOttomanEmpire.
100 TheD_himmīastheOtherofMultipleConvivenciasinal-Andalus
Fokus focus
in an ahistorical perspective or minimized, obfus- While conceptual reflection on its meaning is
catedorevenvilified. undoubtedly legitimate – even paramount – such
Certainly, the conceptualization of Convivencia polemics frequently omit the dimension of life
itself is subject to considerable difficulties of per- within this unique historical experience, a period
ception,firstaccordingtothedisciplinarylensand of remarkable interdependent »co-living«.Taking
then to methodology. Nevertheless, the fact re- recourse to the legal status of d_himmī as a con-
mainsthat it representstheconnection to Iberian ceptualreadinglensthatgoesalongwith–andat
Islamandmorepreciselytothe»theory«ofd_himma times even outpaces – Convivencia serves to re-
which merits more reflection and research. The center the debate and insist on those dimensions
presentessayisconceivedinthisvein. that are most practical for living together, even if
these cannot escape dogmatic religious framing.
That said, before moving on to this phase of
reflection, it is useful to first recall the essential
points of the conceptual and methodological de-
batesurroundingConvivencia.
InhisbookRoyalTreasure:MuslimCommunities
UndertheCrownofAragoninthe14thCentury,John
Boswell paints a vivid image of the great concep-
tual difficulty revealed by the term Convivencia:
»Thequestionofconvivencia,thelivingtogetherof
the variousIberian religious and ethnic groups, is
intensely complicated, and the task of a scholar
trying to understand and describe this symbiosis
is rather like that of a man attempting to recon-
struct a broken and crumpled spider’s web«.14
HistorianOliviaRemieConstableexplicitlyunder-
lines the »dangerousness« of Convivencia – as a
modern concept, to be precise. Due to its »sim-
plicity« as a model, it can also be extremely com-
plex and therefore dangerous, »since it can tempt
us to read the Middle Ages through a murky –
thoughoftenrosy–lensofbiasedhistoricalmem-
oryanddeterministicmodernvalues«.15Thediffi-
cultyisrealandthecomplexityallbutinsurmount-
Fig.6.MuslimandChristianknightsembracingingreeting able, to the point that certain researchers increas-
inglyinsist onthe uneasinessthat altersConviven-
It is unavoidable for us to ask a question that, ciadespitealleffortsundertakeninworksposterior
while certainly provocative, is nonetheless legiti- to, and often critical of, Américo Castro. Instead
mate: Is Convivencia actually an empty shell of a of acting as an aid for conceptual framing, the
concept, something »romanticized« and suscepti- termhasbecomearealobstacletoIberianStudies
ble to all sorts of projections of values or ideolo- of the Medieval Period.This is what Maya Soifer,
gies, an ahistorical and perhaps even dangerous to name just one example, fiercely claims.16 Her
concept? For the purpose of the present research, pleato betterunderstandtheChristianbasescon-
themostdecisivetaskinapproachingthisquestion cerning the treatment of religious minorities in
is casting off the chains imposed by the semantic theNorthernandSouthernPyreneesmaybewell-
and ideological battle surrounding Convivencia. founded. She convincingly criticizes the lack of
14 Boswell(1977)12. reflectionsonthehistoriographyof
15 RemieConstable(2005),citedin: interfaithrelationsinChristian
Szpiech(2013)135. Spain«19–35.
16 SeeSoifer(2009),inparticularthe
article»Beyondconvivencia:critical
RajaSakrani 101
Rg262018
attention accorded to the nuances of social and ities, especially from the perspective of European
politicalpowersthataffectedtherelationsbetween legalhistory.19
Christians, Muslims and Jews, and played out in The conceptual battle surrounding the defini-
the polarization implied by Convivencia between tionofConvivenciaisnotmerelytheconsequence
»tolerance«and»persecution«.Herargumentcon- ofmethodologicalriftsanddisputes.20Itresultsas
cerningtheIslamicelement,however,isquestion- much from methodological conflicts within the
able. In essence, according to the author, Con- humanitiesasitfollowsinthewakeofthelinguis-
vivencia continues to hold some of its past influ- tic turn.21 In any case, the issues of polemics are
ence due to researchers insisting on comprehen- well removed from methodological questions. At
sionbetweenreligionsasa»distinctlyIbero-Islamic issueishistoryaswellastherewriting,interpreta-
phenomenon«.17Sheinsinuatesthat»theevidence tion,inventionandreinventionofhistory.Atissue
for Islamic influence on interfaith coexistence in are the three monotheistic religions, Europe and
ChristianSpainisscarce«.18However,itisprecisely the Other. Since Américo Castro, and even well
thisArab-IslamicaspectoftheissueofConvivencia before him,22 Convivencia has incessantly been
that merits scientific study, minute analysis and pulledeverywhichway.Itistheenigmatobeun-
correct understanding so that the historical nor- ravelled,thehistoricalrealitythathasbeenburied
mative legacy of Arab culture in the Iberian Pen- for a long time. It is the religious syncretism, the
insula can find a legitimate place in the human- exaggerated social and cultural symbiosis,23 it is
17 Abstractfortheabove-mentionedar- modelhascreatedamethodological subjectedtocertainrectificationsin
ticle:Soifer(2009)19. riftbetweeninterpretativeandem- laterworks.Onemightcomparein
18 Ibid. piricalargumentsbothwithinand thissensethefirstworksbyCastro
19 SeethebasicarticlebyDuve(2012), acrossHumanistdisciplinessuchas (1948);Castro(1954).Itisalsoim-
also:Duve(2014);(2018). philologyandhistoriography;and portantnottolosesightofthe
20 Thisessayisnotconcernedwithcat- third,thatthisdivisionhasproduced thoughtsandworksofcertaincon-
alogingthesemethodologicalprob- aprofoundconflictofmethodbe- temporariesofAméricoCastro,such
lems,orwithprovidinganin-depth tweenapredominantfocusonher- asAuerbach(1965).Moreover,the
criticalanalysisofthesedifficulties. meneuticsinNorthAmericaandon linktothephilologicalconceptof
Suchefforts,forthemostpart,go scientificphilologyinSpain«. GiambattistaVicoisexplicitlymen-
beyondourpresentscope.Thelitera- 22 Foramorepreciseanalysisofthe tionedintheintroductionofthis
tureonthissubjectisabundant.See, workandlegacyofAméricoCastro, workbyAuerbach(1965)xvi.The
bywayofexample:ChacónJimenez oneshouldreturntohisteacher:Ra- Romanticveinofwhatiscommonly
(1982);García-Sabell(1965); mónMenéndezPidalsoastobetter referredtoas»literaryhistory«or
Guillen(1975);Mannetal.(eds.) understandthelinguisticandcon- »Romantichistory«underwhich
(1992);seeespecially:Glick(1992a, ceptualpremisesofthewordConvi- AméricoCastroissystematically
1992b),alsoformorerecentworks: vencia.Ineffect,Castrostartsbyusing classed,particularlybyhisdetractors,
Tolan(1999);Catlos(2003); theexpressionnotinthepropersense canbeeasilyidentifiedviatheseaf-
ArízagaBolumburo(2007);Fuente ofalinguisticvariant,butratherto filiations.See:Peña(1975)72ff.:
Pérez(2010);CabedoMas/Gil designatethesocialcoexistenceof »Filologíacomoeuropeización«.
Martinez(2013). Christians,JewsandMuslimsinthe Tofurtherpolemicizearoundthese
21 Forareasonablycompletesummary IberianPeninsuladuringtheMiddle tendenciesisanothermatterwhich
ofthisquestionbasedonhistorio- Agesin:Castro(1956)48.Castro hasnoplacehere.
graphicpolemicsthroughthelensof explains:»MenéndezPidalnopuede 23 Forthesecritiques,seeinparticularly
philology,seeSzpiech(2013)136: ›convivir‹miideahistóricaporqueél theattackbySánchez-Albornoz
»TheoverallargumentIwishto piensa,osiente,que›lavidadeun (1956),alsointhesamesense:
profferhere(…)consistsofthree puebloesuncontinuoirrompible, Asensio(1976)26ff.Cf.furtherfor
parts:first,thatthecomparatist dadalarealidaddesuininterrumpida laterworksandtheirextendedtreat-
methodfollowedbyAméricoCastro sucesióngenerative‹.Locualquiere mentofthisconflictanditsout-
andotherliteraryhistoriansofhis decirquelaspalabrasusadasporel growths–simplybywayofexample:
generation(…)derivedultimately maestrodelhispanismoylasmías Gómez-Martínez(1975);Glick
fromanearlyRomanticconceptof poseendistintosignificado,un›sen- (2005),inparticular6–13.Further,
history,itselfanexpressionofanear- tido‹paraélyotroparamí–una onthenotionofConvivenciaingen-
liermodelproposedbyGiambattista discrepanciacorrectayrespetable«. eralanditsorigins,esp.Akasoy
Vico,oftheintimateconnectionbe- SeealsoaboutthetheoryofMenén- (2010);Wolf(2009);Martínez
tweenphilologyandphilosophy; dezPidal:Gómez-Martínez(1975) Montávez(1983–1984).
second,thatthecollapseofthis 61ff.Subsequently,thetermwas
102 TheD_himmīastheOtherofMultipleConvivenciasinal-Andalus