Piezoelectric and Acoustic Materials for Transducer Applications

478 Pages·2008·19.45 MB·English

by  E. Koray Akdogğan

Piezoelectric and Acoustic Materials for Transducer
Applications
Ahmad Safari • E. Koray Akdog˘an
Editors
Piezoelectric and Acoustic
Materials for Transducer
Applications
(cid:65)(cid:66)(cid:67)
Editors
AhmadSafari E.KorayAkdog˘an
DepartmentofMaterialsScience DepartmentofMaterialsScience
andEngineering andEngineering
TheGlennHowattElectronicCeramics TheGlennHowattElectronicCeramics
Laboratory Laboratory
RutgersUniversity RutgersUniversity
Piscataway,NJ08854 Piscataway,NJ08854
ConsultingEditor
D.R.Vij
ISBN:978-0-387-76538-9 e-ISBN:978-0-387-76540-2
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2008927196
(cid:176)c 2008SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC
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Preface
Theideaofcreatingabookofthisgenrecamewiththerealizationthattherewereno
booksintheopenliteraturethatcombinedthematerialsaspectofpiezoelectricand
acousticmaterialstogetherwith the principlesoftransducerdesignandrecentad-
vancesinpiezoelectrictransducers,aswellastheirapplication.Bycombiningtopics
suchasFundamentalsofPiezoelectricity(PartI),PiezoelectricandAcousticMate-
rials for TransducerTechnology(Part II), Transducer Design Principles (Part III),
and Piezoelectric Transducer Fabrication Methods (Part IV), our purpose was to
provide a comprehensiveand self-consistent volume whereby the aforementioned
lackofareferencebookintheopenliteraturecanberemedied.
This book is comprised of four complementary sections. In Part I, a concise
treatmentofpiezoelectricphenomenainsolidsispresented.Chapter1byAkdog˘an
andSafariestablishesthesolid-statethermodynamicfoundationforferroelectricity
asallpiezoelectricsusedin today’stransducertechnologyareferroelectric.Italso
delineates the origin of very important concepts such as spontaneous polariza-
tion, hysteresis loops, and piezostrain coefficients, which are needed to describe
the macroscopic behavior of piezoelectrics. The chapter by Kholkin, Pertsev, and
Goltsev (Chap.2) deals with the symmetry aspects of the piezoelectric effect in
variousmaterials(singlecrystals,ceramics,andthinfilms).Itdefinesthethird-rank
tensorofpiezoelectriccoefficientsinreferencetothefundamentalsofcrystallogra-
phy,andthendiscussestheorientationdependenceofthelongitudinalpiezoelectric
response in ferroelectric single crystals. Also, a concise discussion on the effec-
tive piezoelectric constants of polydomain crystals, ceramics, and thin films and
their dependence on crystal symmetry is provided. The domain-wall contribu-
tion to the piezoelectric properties of ferroelectric ceramics and thin films is also
given. Finally, the crystallographic principles of piezomagnetic, magnetoelectric,
and multiferroic materials are presented. In Chap.3, Trolier-McKinstry presents
a detailed description of the crystallochemical principles of ferroelectricity and
piezoelectricityinsolids. Thediscussioncoversperovskites,tolerancefactors,do-
mains and domain walls, the lead zirconate titanate (PZT) system, bismuth-layer
v
vi Preface
structure,LiNbO ,tungstenbronzestructure,andSbSI,whichisthepointofdepar-
3
tureinthedevelopmentofpiezoelectriccomposites.Theemphasisisontheatomic
arrangementsleadingtopolarizationanditsconsequencesonmaterialproperties.
In Part II, three chapters are devoted to the most prominent piezoelectric and
acoustic material systems currentlyeither in use or in developmentfor transducer
applications. Damjanovic (Chap.4) gives a detailed account on lead-based fer-
roelectrics/piezoelectrics, including PbTiO , PZT, relaxor ferroelectrics, and sin-
3
gle crystals. Therein, one could find an in-depth discussion of the morphotrophic
phase boundary in the PZT system as well as the anisotropy in piezoelectric re-
sponse in PbTiO . Systems with compositional modifications are treated as well,
3
wherehardandsoftferroelectricsareintroduced.Kosecetal.(Chap.5)givesafull
overviewofthe(K,Na)NbO system,whichisthemostimportantlead-freeferro-
3
electricsystemwhosecompositionalmodificationshavegreatpromiseforapplica-
tionsinthefuture.TheemphasisisontheprocessingofceramicssuchasKNbO ,
3
NaNbO ,(K,Na)NbO ,andtherecentlydiscoveredKNN–LT–LSternarysystem,
3 3
therebyeffectivelyestablishingprocessing-propertyrelations.Also,awealthofma-
terialpropertiesappertainingtothe(K,Na)NbO andrelatedsystemsareincluded
3
therein.Chap.6 by Takenakais on bismuth-basedferroelectricceramics, which is
another lead-free system of utmost importance. The major focus there is on the
Bi Ti O and its compositional modifications. Most importantly, Takenaka pro-
4 3 12
vides a very thorough treatment of grain orientation (texturing) of such lead-free
ceramics, and discusses its consequenceson piezoelectricproperties. Cheng et al.
(Chap.7)presentsaverydetailedoverviewoftheadvancesinelectromechanically
activepolymersinthecontextofmechatronicsandartificialmuscle.Afteraconcise
reviewoftheappertainingphenomenologyonelectromechanicalbehaviorinsolids,
he and his colleagues present systems such as PVDF, P(VDF–TrFE) copolymer,
andterpolymers.A verycomprehensivediscussiononphasetransitions,structure,
andelectromechanicalresponseisprovidedalongwithsets ofmaterialproperties.
InChap.8, Yamashitaetal. introducetherecentadvancesin acoustic lensmateri-
alsandprovideasystematicaccountonrecentadvancesinsilicon-basedtechnolo-
gies. Therein, the evolution of acoustic properties of silicon lenses are discussed
fromtheprocessingvantagepoint,andthemostprominentdopantsforcomposite-
makingare identified.PartIIendswith anotherchapteron acousticlensmaterials
by Kondo, which summarizesthe use of carbon fiber compositesand how a wide
rangeofacousticimpedancescanbefashionedfortransducerapplications.
PartIIIisdevotedtotransducerdesignprinciples.First,Lethiecqetal.(Chap.10)
discuss the design principles governing medical ultrasound transducers. The per-
formance metrics of such transducers are introduced, operation principles of sin-
gle element and transducer arrays are elaborated on, and the underlying acoustic
principles are discussed. In Chap.11, Tressler discusses the design principles of
transducersforsonarapplications.Variousin-airandunder-watercalibrationtech-
niques are first presented, followed by various projector designs (ring, bender
bar, flexural disks, flextensional, tonpilz) are introduced and appertaining design
methodologies are elaborated on. Also included in that chapter are hydrophone
design principles, including cylinder and sphere configurations. This section ends
Preface vii
withChap.12,whereHladky-Hennionprovidesacomprehensiveoverviewoffinite
elementmodeling(FEM)principlesasappliedtopiezoelelectrictransducers.First,
themathematicalfoundationsareprovidedthroughconstitutiveequations,thevari-
ational principle, and appertaining functionals. Then, the application of the FEM
method is demonstrated. Analysis methods such as static, harmonic, modal, and
transientaregiven.Thechapterconcludeswithexamplesontheanalysisofcymbal
transducersandcymbalarrays,and1–3compositetransducers.
Part IV is on transducer fabrication methods. Therefore, it is inherently tied
into applications as well since fabrication methods tend to be application spe-
cific. InChap.13,Schoeneckeraddressesthe statusof piezoelectricfiber compos-
itefabrication,andfocusesonthreetopics:thepreparationofsol–gel-derivedPZT
fiber/polymer composites, the soft-mold method with high achievement potential
forpreparingtailor-madecompositesandunderstandingthe structure–propertyre-
lationships, and the preparation of powder suspension-derivedPZT fiber/polymer
compositesasthetechnologicallyadvancedandcommercializedprocess.Therein,
it is iterated that the use of piezoceramicfibersallows for the fabricationof high-
qualityfibercomposites,surpassingperformancemetricsthatcannotbeachievedby
theconventionaldiceandfilltechnique.BeigeandSteinhausen(Chap.14)discuss
different types of composition gradient systems for bending actuators. The com-
binationofhardandsoftpiezoelectricceramicsandelectrostrictiveandelectrocon-
ductivematerialsareintroduced.Processingstrategiesaresummarizedandamathe-
maticalmodelsformodelingofpolinginsuchcombinedsystemsarepresented.The
resultsoftheoreticalanalysisarecomparedwithexperimentaldataforlead-freesys-
temsbasedonbariumtitanate.InChap.15,Smayetal.presenttheadvancesmade
intheuseofrobocastingsolidfreeformfabrication(SFF)techniquebasedonthedi-
rectwritingofhighlyconcentratedcolloidalgels.Theyshowthatrobocastingoffers
facileassemblyofcomplexthree-dimensionalgeometriesandabroadpalletofce-
ramic,metallic,andpolymericmaterialsfromwhichdevicescanbedeveloped.Ex-
amplesofPZTskeletonsfordirectuseortocreateepoxy-filledcompositessuitable
forhydrostaticpiezoelectricsensorsaregiven.PZTcompositesof(3–3,3–2,3–1)
connectivityaredemonstrated.Itisshownthatthefigureofmerit(d g )increases
h h
byupto60-foldcomparedwithbulkPZTinsuchcomposites.InChap.16,Jantunen
etal.presentacomprehensiveoverviewofthegeneralpropertiesandrequirements
of piezoelectric micropositioners. Special attention is paid to stiffness related to
otheractuatorproperties,withgeneralrulesandexamples.Alsothecontrolandsen-
sortechniquesrequiredtoavoidorminimizethenonlinearitiesofthepiezoelectric
devicearediscussedindetail.Anditisshownthatinmicropositioningaprofound
overall know–how about material properties, actuator design, and control, sensor
and driving techniques are required in addition to an in-depth knowledge of ap-
plicationrequirements.Finally,some commercialapplicationsutilizingpiezoelec-
tric micropositionersare given as examples. Dog˜an and Uzgur (Chap.17) present
a broadreviewof theapplicationofpiezoelectrictransducers.Piezoelectricactua-
torsarecomparedwithmagneticallyactiveandthermallyactiveactuators,andthen
piezoelectricactuatorsandtheirdesignandfabrication,especiallytraditionalpiezo-
electric transducers with newly designed flextensional transducers, are compared.
viii Preface
Finally, application-related issues are discussed on Chap.18 by Shashank et al.
provides strategies for the selection of the piezoelectric transducers based on the
frequencyandamplitudeofthemechanicalstressinthecontextofenergyharvest-
ing.Thefigureofmeritforthematerialselectionisshowntobedirectlyproportional
tothe product(d ×g). Thecriterionformaximizationoftheproductisdiscussed
indepth,andresultsarereportedonvariousdevicesutilizingpiezoelectricbimorph
transducers.OrandChan(Chap.19)presentrecentadvancesinpiezocompositeul-
trasonic transducersfor high-frequencywire bondingof semiconductorpackages.
The principles of wire-bondingand appertainingchallenges are summarized. The
use of 1–3 piezocomposite rings in such applications is shown, and the electro-
mechanicalcharacteristicsarepresented.Thechapteralsoincludesasectiononthe
evaluation of wire-bondingperformanceutilizing such transducers. Bassiri-Gharb
(Chap.20)presentstheuseofpiezoelectricsinMEMSapplications.Inthatchapter,
thepropertiesofAlN, ZnO,PZT,and PMN–PTfilmsare reviewed,andthe effect
of substrate clamping is briefly discussed. Then fabrication and integration issues
are addressed. Various applications of piezoelectrics, including AFM probe tips,
RF switches, micromirrors, micropumps, and microvalvesare given. In Chap.21,
Shungetal.discusshigh-frequencyultrasonictransducersandarrays.Afterathor-
oughoverviewofthestateoftheart,LiNbO single-crystaltransducers,andPMN–
3
PTsingle-crystalneedletransducersforDopplerflowmeasurementsarepresented.
Amultitudeoftransducerdesignsareshown(annulararrays,lineararrays,andtheir
derivatives),andunderlyingprocessingissuesareelaboratedon.Thelastchapterof
thesectionandthebookisonmicromachiningofpiezoelectrictransducersbyPap-
palardoetal.(Chap.22).Thebasicprinciples,thefabricationprocesses,andsome
modeling approaches of novel micromachined ultrasonic transducers (MUTs) are
described.Itisshownthatthesetransducersutilizetheflextensionalvibrationofan
array of micro-membranes called cMUT (capacitive MUT). It is also shown that
goodechographicimagesofinternalorgansinthehumanbodyhavebeenobtained,
demonstratingthe possibilitiesof this technologyto be utilizedin commercial1D
and2Dprobesformedicalapplications.
In conclusion,we thank all the contributingauthorsfor their greatzealand in-
dustry in composingtheir respective chapters. Were it not for their willingness to
participate in this exciting project, none that was accomplished could have been
possible.Aprojectofthismagnitudecannotseethelightofdaywithoutaconstant
sourceof encouragementand support.To thatend, we expressourgratefulnessto
ourfamilies, friends,andcolleagues.Lastbutnotthe least, we thankSpringerfor
givingusgreatflexibilityinregardtothesizeofthisvolume.
Piscataway,NewJersey A.Safari
E.K.Akdog˘an
Contents
Preface............................................................ v
PartI FundamentalsofPiezoelectricity
1 ThermodynamicsofFerroelectricity............................ 3
E.KorayAkdog˘anandAhmadSafari
2 PiezoelectricityandCrystalSymmetry.......................... 17
A.L.Kholkin,N.A.Pertsev,andA.V.Goltsev
3 CrystalChemistryofPiezoelectricMaterials .................... 39
SusanTrolier-McKinstry
PartII PiezoelectricandAcousticMaterialsforTransducerTechnology
4 Lead-BasedPiezoelectricMaterials ............................ 59
DraganDamjanovic
5 KNN-BasedPiezoelectricCeramics ............................ 81
MarijaKosec,BarbaraMalicˇ,AndrejaBencˇan,andTadejRojac
6 Bismuth-basedPiezoelectricCeramics.......................... 103
TadashiTakenaka
7 ElectropolymersforMechatronicsandArtificialMuscles .......... 131
ZhongyangCheng,QimingZhang,JiSu,andMarioElTahchi
8 Low-AttenuationAcousticSiliconeLensforMedicalUltrasonic
ArrayProbes............................................... 161
Y.Yamashita,Y.Hosono,andK.Itsumi
9 Carbon-FiberCompositeMaterialsforMedicalTransducers....... 179
ToshioKondo
ix
x Contents
PartIII TransducerDesignandPrinciples
10 PiezoelectricTransducerDesignforMedicalDiagnosisandNDE ... 191
MarcLethiecq,FranckLevassort,DominiqueCerton,
andLouisPascalTran-Huu-Hue
11 PiezoelectricTransducerDesignsforSonarApplications .......... 217
JamesF.Tressler
12 FiniteElementAnalysisofPiezoelectricTransducers.............. 241
Anne-ChristineHladky-HennionandBertrandDubus
PartIV PiezoelectricTransducerFabricationMethods
13 PiezoelectricFiberCompositeFabrication ...................... 261
AndreasScho¨necker
14 CompositionGradientActuators .............................. 289
RalfSteinhausenandHorstBeige
15 RobocastingofThree-DimensionalPiezoelectricStructures ........ 305
JamesE.Smay,BruceTuttle,andJosephCesaranoIII
16 Micropositioning............................................ 319
J.Juuti,M.Leinonen,andH.Jantunen
17 PiezoelectricActuatorDesigns ................................ 341
AydinDog˜anandErmanUzgur
18 PiezoelectricEnergyHarvestingusingBulkTransducers .......... 373
ShashankPriya,RachitTaneja,RobertMyers,andRashedIslam
19 PiezocompositeUltrasonicTransducersforHigh-FrequencyWire
BondingofSemiconductorPackages ........................... 389
SiuWingOrandHelenLaiWaChan
20 PiezoelectricMEMS:MaterialsandDevices ..................... 413
NazaninBassiri-Gharb
21 High-FrequencyUltrasonicTransducersandArrays.............. 431
K.KirkShung,JonathanM.Cannata,andQifaZhou
22 MicromachinedUltrasonicTransducers ........................ 453
Massimo Pappalardo, Giosue Caliano, Alessandro S. Savoia,
andAlessandroCaronti
Index .............................................................479
Contributors
E.K.Akdog˘an
The Glenn Howatt Electronic Ceramics Laboratory,Departmentof Materials
ScienceandEngineering,RutgersUniversity,Piscataway,NJ08854,USA
N.Bassiri-Gharb
GeorgeW.WoodruffSchoolofMechanicalEngineering,
GeorgiaInstituteofTechnology,Atlanta,GA30332-0405,USA
H.Beige
InstituteofPhysics,Martin-Luther-Universita¨tHalle-Wittenberg,
Friedemann-Bach-Platz6,06108Halle,Germany
A.Bencˇan
JozˇefStefanInstitute,Jamova39,1000Ljubljana,Slovenia
G.Caliano
Aculab–DepartmentofElectronics,University“RomaTre”,Roma,Italy
J.M.Cannata
NIHResourceonMedicalUltrasonicTransducerTechnology,
DepartmentofBiomedicalEngineering,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia,
LosAngeles,CA90089-1111,USA
A.Caronti
Aculab–DepartmentofElectronics,University“RomaTre”,Roma,Italy
J.CeseranoIII
SandiaNationalLaboratories,Albuquerque,NM87185,USA
H.L.W.Chan
Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
HungHom,Kowloon,HongKong
xi