Table Of ContentCoastal and Estuarine Studies
Series Editors:
Malcolm J. Bowman ChristopherN .K.
Coastal
and Estuarine Studies
54
JOrgI mberger (Ed.)
Physical Processes in Lakes
and Oceans
American Geophysical Union
Washington,
Series Editors
Malcolm J. Bowman
Marine Sciences Research Center, State Universityo f New York
Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
Christopher N. K. Mooers
Divisiono f Applied Marine Physics
RSMAS/Universityo f Miami
4600 RickenbackerC swy.
Miami, FL 33149-1098, USA
Editor
J0rg Imberger
Departmento f EnvironmentaEl ngineering
Centre for Water Research
Universityo f Western Australia
Nedlands Western Australia 6907
AUSTRALIA
Library of CongressC ataloging-in-Publication Data
PhysicalP rocessesi n lakes and oceans / J0rg Imberger,e ditor.
p. cm.- (Coastal and estuarine studies, ISSN 0733-9569; 54)
Includes bibliographicalr eferences.
ISBN 0-87590-268-5
1. Lakes. 2. Limnology.3 . Oceans. 4. Hydrodynamics.
I. Imberger,J 0rg. II. Series
GB1603.2.P48 1998
551.48'2(cid:127)c21 98-41142
CIP
ISSN 0733-9569
ISBN 0-87590-268-5
Copyright1 998 by the American GeophysicalU nion, 2000 FloridaA ve., NW, Washington,D C
20009, USA
Figures,t ables, and shorte xcerptsm ay be reprintedi n scientificb ooksa nd journalsi f the
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Printed in the United States of
CONTENTS
PREFACE
J. Imberger ................................................. ix
PART I. INTRODUCTION
1. Flux Paths in a Stratified Lake: A Review
J. Imberger ................................................. 1
PART II. SURFACE LAYER DYNAMICS
2. Air-Water Exchange Processes
M. A. Donelan .............................................. 19
Turbulent Flux of Water Vapor in Relation to the Wave Field and
Atmospheric Stratification
K. B. Katsaros .............................................. 37
On the Structure of the Upper Oceanic Boundary Layer and the
Impact of Surface Waves
A. Anis .................................................... 47
e Large Eddies in the Surface Mixed Layer and Their Effects on
Mixing, Dispersion and Biological Cycling
M. Li and C. Garrett ......................................... 61
e Velocity, Temperature and Spatial Structure of Langmuir Circulation
D. Farmer, J. Gemmrich, and V. Polonichko ........................ 87
e On Wavy Mean Flows, Langmuir Cells, Strain, and Turbulence
S. G. Monismith and J. J. M. Magnaudet ......................... 101
Modeling of Atmospheric Forced Mixing on the Shallow Shelf
I. D. Lozovatskya nd A. S. Ksenofontov.. ......................... 111
Large Inflow-Driven Vortices in Lake Constance
E. Hollan ................................................. 123
PART III. FORCED BASIN SCALE MOTIONS
10. Forced Motion Responsei n EnclosedL akes
K. Hutter, G. Bauer, Y. Wang,a nd P. Giiting ....................... 137
11. Excitation of Internal Seichesb y Periodic Forcing
E. Biiuerle ................................................
12. Thermohaline Transitions
E. C. Carmack,K . Aagaard, J. H. Swirl, R. G. Perkin, F. A. McLaughlin,
R. W. Macdonald, and E. P. Jones .............................. 179
13. Exchange Flows in Lakes
P. F. Hamblin .............................................. 187
14. Gyres Measured by ADCP in Lake Biwa
M. Kumagai, Y.A sada, and S. Nakano ........................... 199
15. Circulation, Convectiona nd Mixing in Rotating, Stratified Basins
with SlopingT opography
P. B. Rhines ............................................... 209
PART IV. INTERNAL WAVE MOTIONS
16. Internal Solitary Waves in Shallow Seasa nd Lakes
R. Grimshaw .............................................. 227
17. Two Intersecting Internal Wave Rays: A Comparison Between
Numerical and Laboratory Results
A. Javam,S . G. Teoh,J . Imberger,a nd G. N. Ivey. .................. 241
18. Breaking Internal Waves and Fronts in Rotating Fluids
A. V. Fedorov and W. K. Melville ............................... 251
19. A Laboratory Demonstrationo f a Mechanism for the Productiono f
Secondary,I nternal Gravity-Wavesi n a Stratified Fluid
T. Maxworthy,J . Imberger,a nd A. Saggio ........................ 261
20. Direct Numerical Simulation of Wave-Mean Flow and Wave-Wave
Interactions: A Brief Perspective
C-L. Lin, J. R. Koseff,J . H. Ferziger,a nd S. G. Monismith. ........... 271
21. Momentum Exchange Due to Internal Waves and Wakes Generated
by Flow Past Topographyi n the Atmospherea nd Lakes
P. G. Baines ............................................... 285
22. In Search of Holmboe's Instability
G. A. Lawrence,S . P Haigh, and Z. Zhu .........................
PART V. TURBULENT MIXING
23. Estimation and Geography of Diapycnal Mixing in the Stratified Ocean
M. C. Gregg. .............................................. 305
24. Special Closure for Stratified Turbulence
J. Weinstock ............................................... 339
25. Turbulent Mixing in Stably Stratified Flows: Limitations and
Adaptations of the Eddy Diffusivity Approach
H. J. S. Fernando,J . C. R. Hunt, E. J. Strang,A . L. Berestov,
and I. D. Lozovatsky.. ....................................... 351
26. Intermittency of Internal Wave Shear and Turbulence Dissipation
C. H. Gibson .............................................. 363
27. Buoyancy Fluxes in a Stratified Fluid
G. N. Ivey, J. Imberger,a nd J, R. Koseff. ......................... 377
28. Mixing Processesin a Highly Stratified River
S. Yoshida, M. Ohtani, S. Nishida, and P. E Linden ................. 389
29. Stratified Turbulence: Field, Laboratory and DNS Data
H. Yamazaki and D. Ramsden .................................. 401
PART VI. INFLUENCE OF TOPOGRAPHY AND THE BENTHIC
BOUNDARY LAYER
30. Waves,M ixing, and Transports over Sloping Boundaries
C. C. Eriksen .............................................. 417
31. SomeD ynamical Effects of Internal Wavesa nd the Sloping
Sides of Lakes
S. A. Thorpe. .............................................. 441
32. FinescaleD ynamics of Stratified Waters Near a Sloping
Boundary of a Lake
U. Letorain,R . Jiang, and S. A. Thorpe. .......................... 461
33. Breaking of Super-Critically Incident Internal Waves at a Sloping Bed
I. P. D. De Silva, J. Imberger,a nd G. N. Ivey ...................... 475
34. Bottom Boundary Mixing: The Role of Near-Sediment
Density Stratification
A. Wiiest and M. Gloor .......................................
35. Turbulent Benthic Boundary Layer Mixing Events in Fresh Water Lakes
C. Lemckert and J. Iraberger .................................. 503
PART VII. IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORT AND MIXING
ON ECOLOGICAL PROCESSES
36. Using Measurementso f Variable Chlorophyll-a Fluorescenceto
Investigate the Influence of Water Movement on the Photochemistry
of Phytoplankton
R. L. Oliver and J. Whittington.. ............................... 517
37. Plants in Motion: Physical - Biological Interaction in the Plankton
C. S. Reynolds ............................................. 535
38. Turbulent Mixing and ResourceS upply to Phytoplankton
S. Maclntyre ............................................... 561
39. The Influence of BiogeochemicalP rocesseso n the Physicso f Lakes
D. M. Imboden ............................................. 591
40. Hydrodynamic vs. Non-Hydrodynamic Influences on Phosphorus
Dynamics During Episodic Events
Y. P. Sherig,X . Chen, and S. SchofieM ........................... 613
41. Coupling of Hydrobiology and Hydrodynamics: Lakes and Reservoirs
M. Straskraba ............................................. 623
42. 3D Modeling of Water Quality Transport Processesw ith Time
and Space Varying Diffusivity Tensors
C. Dejak, R. Pastres,I . Polenghi,C . Solidoroa nd G. Pecenik. ......... 645
List of Contributors ...................................................
PREFACE
Physicall imnologyi s the studyo f motion,t ransporta nd mixing in a lake and so
forms an exactp arallel to physicalo ceanographyH. owever, in comparisonw ith the
field of physicalo ceanographyt,h e hydrodynamicso f lakes has receivedl ittle atten-
tion; what is known about lakes is the result of the efforts of a few individuals who
have relied heavily on the researchr esultsf rom the ocean!
This is a very peculiar situationi f it is rememberedt hat lakes are logistically
much easiera nd cheapert o work in than the ocean.T he answerm ust lie in the fear
that sincei n a lake the boundariesa re usuallyc omplicateda nd closet o the field of
observationt,h e motion is correspondinglcyo mplicateda nd thusd ifficult to unravel.
The secondp eculiarityw hich shouldb e pointedo ut is that lakess upplyp robably8 0%
of the world's drinking water,c onstitutem ajor tourista ttractionsa nd supporti mpor-
tant fisheries,y et the funding of fundamentalr esearchi nto the hydrodynamicso f
lakes,b oth small and large,h as alwaysb een and still remainsp itifully small.A t pre-
sentn o universitiesh ave a major programi n physicall imnology,f ew researchin sti-
tutesf ocuso n physicall imnology,t here is no textbooko n the subject,n or is there a
joumal focusedo n physicall imnology.N o wonderw e are only beginningt o under-
standt he fundamentalso f the hydrodynamicso f lakes.
Lakes also form importantl aboratoriesin their own fight, and as modelso f the
ocean, for the study of how biological, chemical and sedimentologicals ystems
behavei n responseto water transporta nd mixing. This is what I am calling the flux
path problem.L ake researcho ffers immenseo pportunitiesf or understandings uch
reactivet ransports ystemsT. his in tum has importancen ot only for developingp re-
dictive water quality models for lakes, but also for developingt ools which allow
lakest o be useda s an integratedp art of our whole water maintenances ystem.F urther,
such researchh as immense importancef or developing an understandingo f the
responseo f lakes and the oceant o suchd iversep ressuresa s global warming,d eple-
tion of selecteds pecies,a nd introductiono f nutrients,s ynthetico rganic chemicals
and organismsd etrimentalt o health.
A symposiumo n physicall imnology was organisedb y the InternationalU nion
of Theoreticaanl dA ppliedM echanictos f ocusa ttentioonn t hisu nsatisfactosirtyu a-
tion, to highlightt he closel inks which existb etweent he hydrodynamicso f lakesa nd
the ocean,a ndt o alert colleaguesto the challengeso f the flux pathp roblem.T his vol-
ume is an outgrowtho f this symposiuma nd comprisesc ontributionsfr om practical-
ly all presentlyp racticingp hysicall imnologistsa nd from a groupo f selectedp hysi-
cal oceanographerws ho kindly donatedt heir time to crossf ields. I hope the cross
linking was rewardingt o both sides.N ear the end of the book is a selectiono f con-
tributions,a gain from leadersi n their field, which bring out someo f the challenges
of the flux pathp roblem.T he volumet husb ringst ogetherc ontributionsfr om leaders
in physicall imnology,p hysicalo ceanographayn dh ydrobiologya, nda ss uchi s, to my
knowledge,t he first book of its kind.
i would like to thank the authorsf or providingt heir manuscriptst,h e interna-
tionalr eviewersf or their constructivec riticismso f the papersa ndL orraineD om for
the layout of the book and the considerablety ping and editorialw ork sheh asu nder-
taken. Vicki Sly organisedt he symposiumh, eld in Broome,W esternA ustralia,d ur-
ing September1 995, andI am sureI speakf or all the participantsin thankingh er for
co-ordinatinga notablem eetingi n an unforgettablep lace.
J6rg Imberger
Flux Paths in a Stratified Lake: A Review
J. Imberger
Abstract
This review focuseso n clarifying the energy transfer mechanismso perating in a
stratified lake. The energy impartedb y the wind to the lake leads to basin scale waves
which may be identifieda s Kelvin or Poincar6w aveso r simple gravitational seiching; the
verticalm odels tructureo f thesew avesa ppearsto dependo n the wind forcinga nd the basin
slope,b ut most of the energyr esidesi n the first and secondm odes. Once establishedt hese
basin scale waves steepen due to non-linear processesa nd due to shoaling forming a
spectrumo f internal wave motions within the metalimnion with frequenciesf rom about
10- 6 Hz to 10- 2 Hz dependingo n the size of the lake andt he severityo f the stratification.
The waves at the high frequencye nd of the spectruma re often highly non-linear and are
bestd escribeda s solitaryw aves,b oresa nd hydraulicj umps.
It is shownt hat wavesi n the frequencyra ngef rom 5 x 10-5 to 10-2 Hz are close to
critical with respectt o typical bottoms lopes. A review of internalw ave reflection showed
that for suchi ncidentw avesm osto f the incident internal wave energy is dissipateda t the
boundary. This is alsot rue for isolated solitary waves. There are thus two energy sources
for the maintenanceo f the benthicb oundaryl ayer. First, at the level of the metalimnion
incidenti nternalw ave modesb reakg iving up their energy, and second,t he velocity field
associatedw ith the first mode heavingl eadst o shearp roductiona t the lake bottom in the
deeperp artso f a lake basin.
Recent evidencea lso suggestst hat the composite internal wave field gives rise to
turbulentp atchesi n the metalimniona nd to a lessere xtenti n the hypolimnion. The great
majority of the turbulent events have very small displacements cales and are thus
inefficient at transportingm ass vertically, even though the mean dissipation of turbulent
kinetice nergym ay be as high as 10-8m 2 s-3.
It appearst hat massi s thus transferredv ertically in two ways in a stratifiedl ake. First,
through the benthic boundary layer, and second, to a much lesser extent directly by
intermittent turbulent mixing.
Introduction
The study of hydrodynamicso f lakes commencedw ith the pioneering work of
Wedderbum (Wedderburn, 1912). This work showed, for the first time, that the thermal
PhysicalP rocessesin Lakes and Oceans
Coastala nd EstuarineS tudiesV olume 54, Pages1 -18
Copyright 1998 by the American Geophysical
