PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

1186 Pages·2000·8.1 MB·English

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
1 2 New Notation 13 14 15 16 17 18
Group Previous IUPAC Form IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB
IA IIA CAS Version IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA Shell
1 +1 2 0
H -1 He
1.00794 4.002602
1 2 K
3 +1 4 +2 5 +3 6 +2 7 [phone]
Li Be Atomic Number K5e0y to Ch+a2rt Oxidation States B C +-44 N +++234 O F Ne
Symbol Sn +4 +5
-1
62.-9141 92.-0212182 1995 Atomic Weight 1-1188-.1781-04 Electron 120-3.811 122-4.0107 124-5.00674 --23 125-6.9994 128-7.9984032 220-8.1797 K-L
Configuration
11 +1 12 +2 13 +3 14 +2 15 +3 16 +4 17 +1 18 0
Na Mg Al Si +4 P +5 S +6 Cl +5 Ar
-4 -3 -2 +7
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 -1
22.989770 24.3050 IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA IB IIB 26.981538 28.0855 30.973761 32.066 35.4527 39.948
2-8-1 2-8-2 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIII IB IIB 2-8-3 2-8-4 2-8-5 2-8-6 2-8-7 2-8-8 K-L-M
19 +1 20 +2 21 +3 22 +2 23 +2 24 +2 25 +2 26 +227 +228 +2 29 +1 30 +231 +3 32 +2 33 +3 34 +4 35 +1 36 0
K Ca Sc Ti +3 V +3 Cr +3 Mn +3 Fe +3Co +3Ni +3 Cu +2 Zn Ga Ge +4 As +5 Se +6 Br +5 Kr
+4 +4 +6 +4 -3 -2 -1
+5 +7
39.0983 40.078 44.955910 47.867 50.9415 51.9961 55.845 58.933200 58.6934 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.92160 78.96 79.904 83.80
-8-8-1 -8-8-2 -8-9-2 -8-10-2 -8-11-2 -8-13-1 -8-13-2 -8-13-2 -8-15-2 -8-16-2 -8-18-1 -8-18-2 -8-18-3 -8-18-4 -8-18-5 -8-18-6 -8-18-7 -8-18-8 -L-M-N
37 +1 38 +2 39 +3 40 +4 41 +3 42 +6 43 +4 44 +345 +346 +2 47 +1 48 +249 +3 50 +2 51 +3 52 +4 53 +1 54 0
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb +5 Mo Tc +6 Ru Rh 54P.9d38049+3 Ag Cd In Sn +4 Sb +5 Te +6 I +5 Xe
+7 -3 -2 +7
-1
85.4678 87.62 88.90585 91.224 92.90638 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.411 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.29
-18-8-1 -18-8-2 -18-9-2 -18-10-2 -18-12-1 -18-13-1 -18-13-2 -18-15-1 -18-16-1 -18-18-0 -18-18-1 -18-18-2 -18-18-3 -18-18 -4 -18-18-5 -18-18-6 -18-18-7 -18-18-8 -M-N-O
55 +1 56 +2 57* +3 72 +4 73 +5 74 +6 75 +4 76 +377 +378 +2 79 +1 80 +181 +1 82 +2 83 +3 84 +2 85 86 0
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re +6 Os +4Ir +4Pt +4 Au +3 Hg +2Tl +3 Pb +4 Bi +5 Po +4 At Rn
+7
132.90545 137.327 138.9055 178.49 180.9479 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.078 196.96655 200.59 204.3833 207.2 208.98038 (209) (210) (222)
-18-8-1 -18-8-2 -18-9-2 -32-10-2 -32-11-2 -32-12-2 -32-13-2 -32-14-2 -32-15-2 -32-17-1 -32-18-1 -32-18-2 -32-18-3 -32-18-4 -32-18-5 -32-18-6 -32-18-7 -32-18-8 -N-O-P
87 +1 88 +2 89** +3 104 [phone] 109 110 111 112
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Uun Uuu Uub
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (269) (268) (271) (272)
-18-8-1 -18-8-2 -18-9-2 -32-10-2 -32-11-2 -32-12-2 -32-13-2 -32-14-2 -32-15-2 -32-16-2 -O-P-Q
58 +3 59 +3 60 +3 61 +3 62 +2 63 +264 +365 +3 66 +3 67 +368 +3 69 +3 70 +2 71 +3
Ce +4 Pr Nd Pm Sm +3 Eu +3Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb +3 Lu
* Lanthanides
140.116 140.90765 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.964 157 .25 158.92534 162.50 164.93032 167.26 168.93421 173.04 174.967
-19-9-2 -21-8-2 -22-8-2 -23-8-2 -24-8-2 -25-8-2 -25-9-2 -27-8-2 -28-8-2 -29-8-2 -30-8-2 -31-8-2 -32-8-2 -32-9-2 -N-O-P
90 +4 91 +5 92 +3 93 +3 94 +3 95 +3 96 +397 +3 98 +3 99 +3100 +3 101 +2 102 +2 103 +3
** Actinides Th Pa +4 U ++45 Np ++45 Pu ++45 Am ++45 Cm Bk +4 Cf Es Fm Md +3 No +3 Lr
+6 +6 +6 +6
232.0381 231.03588 238.0289 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
-18-10-2 -20-9-2 -21-9-2 -22-9-2 -24-8-2 -25-8-2 -25-9-2 -27-8-2 -28-8-2 -29-8-2 -30-8-2 -31-8-2 -32-8-2 -32-9-2 -O-P-Q
The new IUPAC format numbers the groups from 1 to 18. The previous IUPAC numbering system and the system used by Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) are also shown. For radioactive
elements that do not occur in nature, the mass number of the most stable isotope is given in parentheses.
References
1. G. J. Leigh, Editor, Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1990.
2. Chemical and Engineering News, 63(5), 27, 1985.
3. Atomic Weights of the Elements, 1995, Pure & Appl. Chem., 68, 2339, 1996.
© CRC Press 2001 LLC
Handbook
of
Lasers
Marvin J. Weber Ph.D.
Lawence Berkeley National Laboratory
University of California
Berkeley, California
©2001 CRC Press LLC
Preface
Lasers continue to be an amazingly robust field of activity, one of continually expanding
scientific and technological frontiers. Thus today we have lasing without inversion, quantum
cascade lasers, lasing in strongly scattering media, lasing in biomaterials, lasing in photonic
crystals, a single atom laser, speculation about black hole lasers, femtosecond-duration laser
pulses only a few cycles long, lasers with subhertz linewidths, semiconductor lasers with
predicted operating lifetimes of more than 100 years, peak powers in the petawatt regime and
planned megajoule pulse lasers, sizes ranging from semiconductor lasers with dimensions of
a few microns diameter and a few hundred atoms thick to huge glass lasers with hundreds of
beams for inertial confinement fusion research, lasers costing from less than one dollar to
more than one billion dollars, and a multibillion dollar per year market.
In addition, the nearly ubiquitous presence of lasers in our daily lives attests to the
prolific growth of their utilization. The laser is at the heart of the revolution that is marrying
photonic and electronic devices. In the past four decades, the laser has become an invaluable
tool for mankind encompassing such diverse applications as science, engineering,
communications, manufacturing and materials processing, medical therapeutics,
entertainment and displays, data storage and processing, environmental sensing, military,
energy, and metrology. It is difficult to imagine state-of-the-art research in physics,
chemistry, biology, and medicine without the use of radiation from various laser systems.
Laser action occurs in all states of matter—solids, liquids, gases, and plasmas. Within
each category of lasing medium there may be differences in the nature of the active lasing ion
or center, the composition of the medium, and the excitation and operating techniques. For
some lasers, the periodic table has been extensively explored and exploited; for others—
solid-state lasers in particular—the compositional regime of hosts continues to expand. In
the case of semiconductor lasers the ability to grow special structures one atomic layer at a
time by liquid phase epitaxy, molecular beam epitaxy, and metal-organic chemical vapor
deposition has led to numerous new structures and operating configurations, such as
quantum wells and superlattices, and to a proliferation of new lasing wavelengths. Quantum
cascade lasers are examples of laser materials by design.
The number and type of lasers and their wavelength coverage continue to expand.
Anyone seeking a photon source is now confronted with an enormous number of possible
lasers and laser wavelengths. The spectral output ranges of solid, liquid, and gas lasers are
shown in Figure 1 and extend from the soft x-ray and extreme ultraviolet regions to
millimeter wavelengths, thus overlapping masers. By using various frequency conversion
techniques—harmonic generation, parametric oscillation, sum- and difference-frequency
mixing, and Raman shifting—the wavelength of a given laser can be extended to longer and
shorter wavelengths, thus enlarging its spectral coverage.
This volume seeks to provide a comprehensive, up-to-date compilation of lasers, their
properties, and original references in a readily accessible form for laser scientists and
engineers and for those contemplating the use of lasers. The compilation also indicates the
state of knowledge and development in the field, provides a rapid means of obtaining
reference data, is a pathway to the literature, contains data useful for comparison with
predictions and/or to develop models of processes, and may reveal fundamental
inconsistencies or conflicts in the data. It serves an archival function and as an indicator of
newly emerging trends.
©2001 CRC Press LLC
Ultraviolet Visible
X-ray xS-roafyt uVltraacvuioulmet Infrared Far infrared mMiicllrimoweatevre-
Gas lasers: Masers
3.9 nm
Liquid lasers:
0.33m m 1.8m m
Solid-state lasers:
0.17mm 360m m
0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1000
Wavelength ( m m)
Figure 1 Reported ranges of output wavelengths for various laser media.
In this volume lasers are categorized based on their media—solids, liquids, and gases—
with each category further subdivided as appropriate into distinctive laser types. Thus there
are sections on crystalline paramagnetic ion lasers, glass lasers, polymer lasers, color center
lasers, semiconductor lasers, liquid and solid-state dye lasers, inorganic liquid lasers, and
neutral atom, ionized, and molecular gas lasers. A separate section on "other" lasers which
have special operating configurations or properties includes x-ray lasers, free electron lasers,
nuclear-pumped lasers, lasers in nature, and lasers without inversion. Brief descriptions of
each type of laser are given followed by tables listing the lasing element or medium, host,
lasing transition and wavelength, operating properties, and primary literature citations.
Tuning ranges, when reported, are given for broadband lasers. The references are generally
those of the initial report of laser action; no attempt is made to follow the often voluminous
subsequent developments. For most types of lasers, lasing—light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation—includes, for completeness, not only operation in a
resonant cavity but also single-pass gain or amplified spontaneous emission (ASE). Thus,
for example, there is a section on amplification of core-valence luminescence.
Because laser performance is dependent on the operating configurations and experimental
conditions used, output data are generally not included. The interested reader is advised to
retrieve details of the structures and operating conditions from the original reference (in many
cases information about the output and operating configuration is included in the title of the
paper that is included in the references). Performance and background information about
lasers in general and about specific types of lasers in particular can be obtained from the
books and articles listed under Further Reading in each section.
An extended table of contents is provided from which the reader should be able to locate
the section containing a laser of interest. Within each subsection, lasers are arranged
according to the elements in the periodic table or alphabetically by materials, and may be
further separated by operating technique (for example, in the case of semiconductor lasers,
injection, optically pumped, or electron beam pumped).
©2001 CRC Press LLC
This Handbook of Lasers is derived from data evaluated and compiled by the
contributors to Volumes I and II and Supplement 1 of the CRC Handbook Series of Laser
Science and Technology and to the Handbook of Laser Wavelengths. These contributors are
identified in following pages. In most cases it was possible to update these tabulations to
include more recent additions and new categories of lasers. For semiconductor lasers, where
the lasing wavelength may not be a fundamental property but the result of material
engineering and the operating configuration used, an effort was made to be representative
with respect to operating configurations and modes rather than exhaustive in the coverage of
the literature. The number of reported gas laser transitions is huge; they constitute nearly
80% of the over 16,000 laser wavelengths in this volume. Laser transitions in gases are well
covered through the late 1980s in the above volumes. An electronic database of gas lasers
prepared from the tables in Volume II and Supplement 1 by John Broad and Stephen Krog
of the Joint Institute of Laboratory Astrophysics was used for this volume, but does not
cover all recent developments.
Although there is a tremendous diversity of laser transitions and types, only a few laser
systems have gained widespread use and commercial acceptance. In addition, some laser
systems that were of substantial commercial interest in past years are becoming obsolete and
are likely to be supplanted by other types in the future. Nevertheless, separate subsections on
commercially available lasers are included thoroughout the volume to provide a perspective
on the current state-of-the-art and performance boundaries.
To cope with the continued proliferation of acronyms, abbreviations, and initialisms
which range from the clever and informative to the amusing or annoying, there is an
appendix of acronyms, abbreviations, initialisms, and common names for lasers, laser
materials, laser structures and operating configurations, and systems involving lasers. Other
appendices contain information about laser safety, the ground state electron configurations of
neutral atoms, and fundamental physical constants of interest to laser scientists and
engineers.
Because lasers now cover such a large wavelength range and because researchers in
various fields are accustomed to using different units, there is also a conversion table for
spectroscopists (a Rosetta stone) on the inside back cover.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance of the Advisory Board who
reviewed the material, made suggestions regarding the contents and formats, and in several
cases contributed material (the Board, however, is not responsible for the accuracy or
thoroughness of the tabulations). Others who have been helpful include Guiuseppe
Baldacchini, Eric Bründermann, Federico Capasso, Tao-Yuan Chang, Henry Freund, Claire
Gmachl, Victor Granatstein, Eugene Haller, John Harreld, Stephen Harris, Thomas
Hasenberg, Alan Heeger, Heonsu Jeon, Roger Macfarlane, George Miley, Linn Mollenauer,
Michael Mumma, James Murray, Dale Partin, Maria Petra, Richard Powell, David Sliney,
Jin-Joo Song, Andrew Stentz, Roger Stolen, and Riccardo Zucca. I am especially grateful to
Project Editor Mimi Williams for her skill and help during the preparation of this volume.
Marvin J. Weber
Danville, California
©2001 CRC Press LLC
General Reading
Bertolotti, M., Masers and Lasers: An Historical Approach, Hilger, Bristol (1983).
Davis, C. C., Lasers and Electro-Optics: Fundamentals and Engineering, Cambridge
University Press, New York (1996).
Hecht, J., The Laser Guidebook (second edition), McGraw-Hill, New York (1992).
Hecht, J., Understanding Lasers (second edition), IEEE Press, New York (1994).
Hitz, C. B., Ewing, J. J. and Hecht, J., Understanding Laser Technology, IEEE Press,
Piscataway, NJ (2000).
Meyers, R. A., Ed., Encyclopedia of Lasers and Optical Technology, Academic Press,
San Diego (1991).
Milonni, P. W. and Eberly, J. H., Lasers, Wiley, New York (1988).
O'Shea, D. C., Callen, W. R. and Rhodes, W. T., Introduction to Lasers and Their
Applications, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA (1977).
Siegman, A. E., Lasers, University Science, Mill Valley, CA (1986).
Silfvast, W. T., Ed., Selected Papers on Fundamentals of Lasers, SPIE Milestone Series,
Vol. MS 70, SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, WA (1993).
Silfvast, W. T., Laser Fundamentals, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1996).
Svelto, O., Principles of Lasers, Plenum, New York (1998).
Townes, C. H., How the Laser Happened: Adventures of a Scientist, Oxford University
Press, New York (1999).
Verdeyen, J. T., Laser Electronics, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
(1989).
Yariv, A., Quantum Electronics, John Wiley & Sons, New York (1989).
©2001 CRC Press LLC
The Author
Marvin John Weber received his education at the University of California, Berkeley,
and was awarded the A.B., M.A., and Ph.D. degrees in physics. After graduation, Dr.
Weber continued as a postdoctoral Research Associate and then joined the Research Division
of the Raytheon Company where he was a Principal Scientist working in the areas of
spectroscopy and quantum electronics. As Manager of Solid State Lasers, his group
developed many new laser materials including rare-earth-doped yttrium orthoaluminate.
While at Raytheon, he also discovered luminescence in bismuth germanate, a scintillator
crystal widely used for the detection of high energy particles and radiation.
During 1966 to 1967, Dr. Weber was a Visiting Research Associate with Professor
Arthur Schawlow's group in the Department of Physics, Stanford University.
In 1973, Dr. Weber joined the Laser Program at the Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory. As Head of Basic Materials Research and Assistant Program Leader, he was
responsible for the physics and characterization of optical materials for high-power laser
systems used in inertial confinement fusion research. From 1983 to 1985, he accepted a
transfer assignment with the Office of Basic Energy Sciences of the U.S. Department of
Energy in Washington, DC, where he was involved with planning for advanced synchrotron
radiation facilities and for atomistic computer simulations of materials. Dr. Weber returned
to the Chemistry and Materials Science Department at LLNL in 1986 and served as
Associate Division Leader for condensed matter research and as spokesperson for the
University of California/National Laboratories research facilities at the Stanford Synchrotron
Radiation Laboratory. He retired from LLNL in 1993 and is presently a scientist in the
Center for Functional Imaging of the Life Sciences Division at the Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory.
Dr. Weber is Editor-in-Chief of the multi-volume CRC Handbook Series of Laser
Science and Technology. He has also served as Regional Editor for the Journal of Non-
Crystalline Solids, as Associate Editor for the Journal of Luminescence and the Journal of
Optical Materials, and as a member of the International Editorial Advisory Boards of the
Russian journals Fizika i Khimiya Stekla (Glass Physics and Chemistry) and Kvantovaya
Elektronika (Quantum Electronics).
Among several honors he has received are an Industrial Research IR-100 Award for
research and development of fluorophosphate laser glass, the George W. Morey Award of the
American Ceramics Society for his basic studies of fluorescence, stimulated emission and the
atomic structure of glass, and the International Conference on Luminescence Prize for his
research on the dynamic processes affecting luminescence efficiency and the application of this
knowledge to laser and scintillator materials.
Dr. Weber is a Fellow of the American Physical Society, the Optical Society of America,
and the American Ceramics Society and has been a member of the Materials Research
Society and the American Association for Crystal Growth.
©2001 CRC Press LLC
Advisory Board
Connie Chang-Hasnain, Ph.D. Joseph Nilsen, Ph.D.
Electrical Engineering/Computer Sciences Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
University of California Livermore, California
Berkeley, California
William B. Colson, Ph.D. Stephen Payne, Ph.D.
Physics Department Laser Program
Naval Postgraduate School Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Monterey, California Livermore, California
Christopher C. Davis, Ph.D. Clifford R. Pollock, Ph.D.
Electrical Engineering Department School of Electrical Engineering
University of Maryland Cornell University
College Park, Maryland Ithaca, New York
Bruce Dunn, Ph.D. Anthony E. Siegman, Ph.D.
Materials Science and Engineering Department of Electrical Engineering
University of California Stanford University
Los Angeles, California Stanford, California
J. Gary Eden, Ph.D. Dr. William T. Silfvast
Electrical and Computer Engineering Center for Research and Education in
University of Illinois Optics and Lasers
Urbana, Illinois Orlando, Florida
David J. E. Knight, Ph.D. Richard N. Steppel, Ph.D.
DK Research Exciton, Inc.
Twickenham, Middlesex, England Dayton, Ohio
(formerly of National Physical Laboratory)
William F. Krupke, Ph.D. Anne C. Tropper, Ph.D.
Laser Program Optoelectronic Research Centre
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory University of Southhampton
Livermore, California Highfield, Southhampton, England
©2001 CRC Press LLC
Contributors
William L. Austin William B. Colson
Lite Cycles, Inc. Department of Physics
Tucson, Arizona Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, California
Guiuseppe Baldacchini
ENEA - Frascati Research Center Christopher C. Davis
Roma, Italy Depatment of Electrical Engineering
University of Maryland
Tasoltan T. Basiev College Park, Maryland
General Physics Institute
Moscow, Russia Robert S. Davis
Department of Physics
William B. Bridges University of Illinois at Chicago Circle
Electrical Engineering and Applied Physics Chicago, Illinois
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California Bruce Dunn
Materials Science and Engineering
John T. Broad University of California
Informed Access Systems, Inc. Los Angeles, California
Boulder, Colorado
(formerly of the Joint Institute of J. Gary Eden
Laboratory Astrophysics) Department of Electrical Engineering/Physics
University of Illinois
Eric Bründermann Urbana, Illinois
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Raymond C. Elton
Berkeley, California
Naval Research Laboratory
Washington, DC
John A. Caird
Laser Program
Michael Ettenberg
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
RCA David Sarnoff Research Center
Livermore California
Princeton, New Jersey
Tao-Yuan Chang
Henry Freund
AT&T Bell Laboratories
Science Applications International Corp.
Holmdel, New Jersey
McLean, Virginia
Connie Chang-Hasnain
Electrical Engineering/Computer Sciences Claire Gmachl
University of California Lucent Technologies
Berkeley, California Murray Hill, New Jersey
Stephen R. Chinn Julius Goldhar
Optical Information Systems, Inc. Department of Electrical Engineering
Elmsford, New York University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Paul D. Coleman
Department of Electrical Engineering Victor L. Granatstein
University of Illinois Naval Research Laboratory
Urbana, Illinois Washington, DC
©2001 CRC Press LLC