Table Of ContentPAVEMENT MATERIALS
FOR HEAT ISLAND
MITIGATION: DESIGN
AND MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES
HUI LI, Ph.D., P.E.
Research Scientist, Dept. of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of California, Davis, US
Professor, School of Transportation, Tongji University,
Shanghai, China
AMSTERDAM(cid:129)BOSTON(cid:129)HEIDELBERG(cid:129)LONDON
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SANFRANCISCO(cid:129)SINGAPORE(cid:129)SYDNEY(cid:129)TOKYO
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure1.1 Heatislandsketch. 4
Figure1.2 Localized pavement system with pedestrians, buildings,
andvehicles. 5
Figure1.3 Annual heat-related mortality changing over time
(predicted forSacramento).(Note:for differentprojected
weatherpatterns, e.g.,frequency andseasonality.) 6
Figure1.4 Example of electrical load versus air temperature for New
Orleans,Louisiana. (g andg arethethresholdsoflow and
1 2
hightemperatures outofwhichthe energydemandwill
rapidlyincrease.) 7
Figure1.5 Effect of air temperature on ground-level ozone. (a) Peak
(1-h)ground-levelozoneinAtlanta,Georgia. (b)Ozonevs
temperature throughastatistical analysisof21years
(1987–2007)ofozoneandtemperature observations across
theUnitedStates. (Ozonevstemperature plotted for3(cid:1)C
temperature binsacrossthe range19to37(cid:1)Cforthe 5th,
25th,50th, 75thand95thpercentiles oftheozonedistribu-
tions,ineachtemperature bin,before andafter2002in
chemically coherentreceptorregions. Dashedlinesand
plussesareforthe pre-2002linearfitofozoneasafunction
oftemperature; solid linesandfilledcircles arefor after2002.
Colorandpositioncorrespond topercentile (ontopinred
(darkgray inprintversions) are95th, nextpairdown in
green(grayinprintversions) is 75th,light-blue (light grayin
printversions) is50th, darkblue(darker grayinprint
versions) is25th, andthebottompairinblackarethe5th
percentile values.)Valuesareplottedatthe mid-point
temperature ofthe 3(cid:1)Ctemperature bin.The averageslopes
givenoneachpanel indicatetheclimate penaltyfactors.) 9
Figure 1.6 Flowchart of open system for evaluating pavement–
environmentinteractions. 11
Figure1.7 Energybalanceon pavementsurface. 12
Figure2.1 Shading pavements. (a) shading with trees. (b) shading
withcanopyandsolarpanels. 24
Figure2.2 Methodology to analyze the impacts of shade trees, cool
roofs,and coolpavements onenergyuseand airquality
(smog). 39
Figure3.1 Roadmapforthisstudy oncool pavements.
Note:Ch.¼Chapter. 45
Figure4.1 Designs of experimental sections for the cool pavement
study.(a)Cross-sectionsforinterlockingconcretepaver
pavements(A).(b)Cross-sectionsforasphalt(B)andconcrete
xiii
xiv ListofFigures
(C)pavements.(c)Schematicplanview(sixpermeable
pavementsshowninshadedarea,i.e.,lefttwocolumns). 50
Figure4.2 Construction of experimental sections for the cool
pavementstudy.(a)Preparationofthesubgrade layers.
(b)Construction ofbaselayers. (c)Construction ofsurface
layers(paverpavements).(d)Construction ofsurface layers
(concretepavements).(e) Construction ofsurfacelayer
(asphaltpavement). 53
Figure4.3 Photoviewofallexperimental sectionsatUCPRC facility. 57
Figure4.4 Albedomeasurement systemwithadualpyranometer.
(a)Dualpyranometer(albedometer).(b)DAS: datalogger
(CR10X),battery, andcomputer. 58
Figure4.5 Albedo of different materials at different locations
measuredon19September2011.(a)Interlockingconcrete
paversectionsA1–A3.(b)AsphaltpavementsectionsB1–B3.
(c)ConcretepavementsectionsC1–C3.CT,center;NE,
northeast;NW,northwest;SE,southeast;SW,southwest. 62
Figure4.6 Overallalbedosofninetestsections measuredon
19September 2011. 63
Figure4.7 Albedo of other pavement and land-cover materials. PMA,
polymermodifiedasphalt;RHMA,rubberized hotmixed
asphalt;RWMA,rubberized warmmixedasphalt;AgedAC,
agedasphaltconcrete;OGFC, opengradedfriction course;
PCC,Portland cementconcrete. 65
Figure4.8 Diurnalvariationofsolarreflectivityduringoneday.
(a)Concretepavement(C2).(b)Asphaltpavement(B2). 67
Figure4.9 Diurnal variation of solar reflectivity over three days (B2).
Timeisshown asmonth/day/year. 68
Figure4.10 Seasonal variation ofsolar reflectivity (B2, fall2011 through
summer2012).(a)Fall.(b)Winter. (c)Spring.(d)Summer.
Timeisshown asmonth/day/year. 69
Figure4.11 Seasonal variation of solar reflectivity at various times of
theday(B2).Note: thedata withvery lowsolar radiation
(<5W/m2)butaveryhighalbedoinearly morningandlate
afternoonwere neglected. Timeisshownasmonth/day/
year. 70
Figure4.12 Change of solar reflectivity over time. Nine test sections,
onlyweathered,pavers A1–A3,asphaltpavementsB1–B3,
andconcretepavements C1–C3. 70
Figure4.13 Influence of clouds on solar reflectivity (B2). Time is shown
asmonth/day/year. 71
Figure4.14 Influence of wind speed on solar reflectivity (B2). (a) Wind
speedand airtemperature on23–25February 2012.
(b)Albedoand solarradiationon23–25February 2012. 72
Figure4.15 Influence of solar reflectivity on pavement surface temper-
ature.Summeron1July2012with daytimepeak solarradia-
tionapproximately 1000W/m2 andwinteron15January
2012withdaytime peaksolar radiation approximately
500W/m2. 73
ListofFigures xv
Figure4.16 Influence of solar radiation on cooling effect of increased
albedo.(a)Coolingeffectofincreasedalbedoandpeak
solarradiation intensityindifferent months.(b)Correlation
betweencoolingeffect ofincreasedalbedoand solar
radiation. 75
Figure5.1 NCAT field permeameter. (a) Four cylindrical tiers with
differentinsidediameters.(b)Photoviewofthepermeameter
withbottomtwotiersusedunderfieldoperationforthis
study. 82
Figure5.2 ASTM C1701 field permeameter. (a) Specified dimensions
and(b)photoviewofthepermeameterusedunder field
operationforthisstudy. 83
Figure5.3 Box and whisker plot of permeability data for all test
sectionmeasurementsusingtheASTMandNCATmethods. 86
Figure5.4 Measurementrepeatabilitybasedoncoefficientofvariation
forpermeability valuesmeasuredusingtheASTMand
NCATmethods. 89
Figure5.5 Influence of operator on permeability measurements made
usingtheASTMandNCATmethods. 91
Figure5.6 Correlation between the permeability value measurements
usingtheASTMandNCATmethods. 91
Figure5.7 Double ring used for testing (compared to the single ring
asshown inFigure 5.2). 93
Figure5.8 (a) Influence of ring type and (b) ring size (SR¼single
ring;DR¼doublering)onpermeability measurement
applicabletoASTMC1701constant-head method. 94
Figure5.9 Influence of ring type and size on permeability measure-
mentbased onoperationasfalling head(FH)orconstant
head(CH).Note: FH-1200 tubesizewas usedfor falling-head
permeabilitymeasurements tocompareASTMC1701and
NCATpermeameters. 95
Figure6.1 Flowchart for temperature simulation for (a) cylinder and
(b)beamspecimens. 108
Figure6.2 Plots for illustrating root interval for eigenvalue functions
(g(x)¼h(x),h(x)¼Bi/x).(a)F(cid:1)orinfiniteplate(g((cid:3)x)¼tanx)
and(b)forinfinitecylinder gðxÞ¼J ðxÞ=J ðxÞ .
1 0 110
Figure6.3 Simulated temperature with various numbers of term N
inthesolution (center,z¼0mm,r¼0mm).(a)0–5h,
(b)0–0.3h. 112
Figure6.4 Simulated temperatures for a short cylinder at different
locations. (a)Center(z¼0mm,r¼0mm),alongwith
comparisontosolutionsfrom1-Dinfiniteplateand1-D
infinitelongcylinder. (b)Surface(z¼0mm,r¼50mm),
alongwithcomparisontosolutionsfrom1-Dinfinite
plateand1-Dinfinitelongcylinder.(c)Comparison of
temperaturesforthreedifferentlocations. 113
xvi ListofFigures
Figure6.5 Sensitivity of thermal property parameters on the solution.
(a)Thermalconductivity k(W/(m(cid:1)C)),(b)heatcapacity c
(J/(kg(cid:1)C)),(c)density r(kg/m3),(d)convectioncoefficient
h(W/(m2(cid:1)C)),(e)thermal diffusivitya(m2/s), (f)h/k(1/m). 115
Figure6.6 Predicted temperature profiles for various specimenshapes
andsizes.(a)Center, (b)surface. 117
Figure6.7 Flowchartforback-calculation ofthermalproperties. 119
Figure6.8 Testsetupformeasurement ofthermalproperties. 121
Figure6.9 Measuredtemperaturesatvariouslocations forasphaltand
concretespecimens.(a)AsphaltspecimenA0;(b)concrete
specimenC0. 122
Figure6.10 Adaptive range and step length, optimized parameters,
andRMSEforvariouslevelsofoptimization(A0).(a)Ther-
maldiffusivitya,(b)ratioh/k. 123
Figure6.11 Predicted temperature with the optimized thermal
properties comparedwithmeasuredtemperature: asphalt
specimenA0(units: ainm2/s;h/kin1/m;RMSEin(cid:1)C). 124
Figure6.12 Predicted temperature with the optimized thermal
properties comparedwithmeasuredtemperature: concrete
specimenC0(units: ainm2/s;h/kin1/m;RMSEin(cid:1)C). 125
Figure6.13 The influence of testing time on the optimized parameters
(A0).(a)aandh/katlocation1,(b)kandcatlocation1,
(c)aandh/katlocation2,(d)kandcat location2, (e)a
andh/katlocation3,(f)kandcatlocation3. 128
Figure6.14 Exampleconcretespecimensusedfortestingandtestsetup. 129
Figure7.1 Gradationsofmaterialstestedinthischapter. 140
Figure7.2 Sample preparation (B3, C3, and C2 are dark in (d) because
ofwetting).(a)Samplesandcylindercontainers;(b)Gravel
S1usedtofillupthecylinderunderB3;(c)Samplesin
cylindercontainers;(d)Sampleincylindersfilledwithwater. 140
Figure7.3 Addingwater tofillupthecylindercontainers. 141
Figure7.4 Evaporationtestingunderoutdoor conditions. 142
Figure7.5 Weatherdataduringtheexperimentalperiod(norain). 144
Figure7.6 Surfacetemperature changeovertime. 144
Figure7.7 Waterweightchangeovertime. 145
Figure7.8 (a) Evaporation rate and (b) latent heat flux (cooling effect)
changeovertime. 146
Figure7.9 Average evaporation rates of various materials. (a) 3-day
average(9–11July).(b)1-dayaverage(10July).(c)Morning
(00:00–10:00 h,10July). (d)Noon(10:00–14:00h,10July).
(e)Afternoon(14:00–18:00h,10July).(f)Night(18:00–0:00h,
10July).Thecenterthickblackhorizontallineineachboxof
theboxplotsisthemedianvalue.Thecoloredboxindicates
thefirstquartile(Q1)andthethirdquartile(Q3).Thebars
outsidetheboxaretheminimumandmaximumvalues
exceptforoutliers.Thecirclesareoutliersdefinedasbeing
morethan1.5(Q3–Q1)fromQ1orQ3. 148
ListofFigures xvii
Figure7.10 Effects of (a) permeability and (b) air void content on
evaporationrate. 150
Figure7.11 Effect of water level depth on evaporation rate:
(a)permeablesurfacematerialsand(b)gravel materials. 152
Figure8.1 Cross-sections and sensor locations forthetest sections. (a)
SectionB1.(b) SectionB2.(c)SectionB3.Note:D,
dense-graded; O,open-graded. 1in¼25.4mm. 159
Figure8.2 Instrumentation and data collection system. (a) Thermo-
couplesensors. (b)Datacollection system(inside).(c)Data
collectionsystem (outside).(d)Weatherstation. 160
Figure8.3 Temperature profiles of various permeable pavements at
variouslocationsinsummer2011.(a)Paverpavement(A3).
(b)Asphaltpavement(B3).(c)Concretepavement(C3).Air
temperature(AirTemp.)wasmeasuredfromanearbyweather
stationat2mabovetheground.Datesaregivenasmonth/
day. 162
Figure8.4 Diurnal variation of surface temperature and weather data
on1dayofeachseason. (a)Winter.(b)Spring.(c)Summer.
(d)Fall.Weather data(airtemperature, wind speed,and
solarradiation) weremeasured fromanearbyweather
stationataround2mabovetheground.Dates aregiven
asmonth/day. 164
Figure8.5 Diurnal variation in surface temperatures in 3days of each
season.(a)Winter. (b)Spring.(c)Summer.(d)Fall.Air
temperature (AirTemp.)was measured fromanearby
weatherstationataround2mabovethe ground.Dates
aregivenasmonth/day. 165
Figure8.6 Times of maximum air temperature (Ta), solar radiation
(SR),andpavementsurfacetemperature (Ts)in1day.
Datesaregivenasmonth/day.(a)Winter.(b) Spring.(c)
Summer.(d)Fall. 166
Figure8.7 Statistical times of maximum and minimum air tempera-
ture,solar radiation,andpavementsurface temperaturein
1year. (a)Minairtemperature. (b)Max airtemperature. (c)
Maxsolar radiation.(d)Minpavementsurfacetemperature.
(e)Maxpavementsurface temperature. 167
Figure8.8 Daily maximum and minimum air temperatures and pave-
mentsurface temperaturesover1year.Concrete (C1),paver
(A1),andasphalt(B1)pavements.Datesaregivenas
month/day/year. (a)Maxtemperature. (b)Mintemperature. 169
Figure8.9 Variation of in-depth pavement temperatures ((cid:3)25.4cm
(10in)deep).Datesaregivenasmonth/dayormonth/day/
year.(a)Winter.(b)Spring.(c)Summer.(d)Fall.(e)Year-
round. 171
Figure8.10 Near-surface air temperatures of various pavements (2in
(5cm)abovethepavementsurface).Datesaregivenas
month/day.(a)Winter. (b)Spring.(c)Summer. (d)Fall. 172
xviii ListofFigures
Figure8.11 Comparison ofthermal performance ofpermeable (B3)and
impermeable(B1)pavements.Dates aregivenasmonth/
day.(a)Winter. (b)Spring.(c)Summer. (d)Fall. 173
Figure8.12 Rainfall data in 1year (October 2011 to November 2012).
Datesaregivenasmonth/day/year.0:00indicates
midnight. 173
Figure8.13 Thermal performance of permeable pavement (B3) with
andwithoutirrigation. 175
Figure8.14 Heat flux from pavement surfaces. q_ref is reflected short-
wavesolar radiation;q_em isemittedlong-wave radiation;
q_radiois radiosity andequaltoq_refþq_em;q_convis
convectiveheat.C1islightconcrete pavement; C2isdark
concretepavement; A1ispaverpavement; B1isasphalt
pavement.Datesaregivenasmonth/day. 177
Figure8.15 Temperature profiles at eight locations on each test
section,B1–B3,versuslocalstandard time(LST).Dates are
givenasmonth/day/year. 180
Figure8.16 Temperature differences between permeable pavements
(sectionsB2andB3)and conventionalimpermeablepave-
ment(sectionB1)versuslocalstandard time(LST). Dates
aregivenasmonth/day/year. 181
Figure8.17 Statistical temperature difference (overall cooling effect
throughaday)ofpermeablepavements(B2andB3)
comparedtoconventionalimpermeablepavement(B1)
underdryandwetconditionsoverthewholetestperiod.
Negativedifferencemeanspermeablepavementiscooler. 182
Figure8.18 Cooling degree hours (CDH) and heating degree hours
(HDH)overaperiod. 183
Figure8.19 Weather data during the dry and wet periods (before and
after21:00h,21September2011).Datesare givenas
month/day/year. 187
Figure8.20 Thermalcamera usedinthestudy. 189
Figure8.21 Water tables and water temperatures in the monitoring
wellsforsixpermeablesections. (a)Watertables.(b)Water
temperatures.Dates aregivenasmonth/day/year. 0:00
indicatesmidnight. 190
Figure8.22 Weather data during the experiment period (no rain).
Datesaregivenasmonth/day/year. 191
Figure8.23 Optical and thermal images of surface temperature of
experimentalsectionsunder dryconditionon9July2012.
(a)Opticalimages.(b)Thermalimagesunderdrycondition
(16:00hon9July2012).Lighterishotter. 192
Figure8.24 Optical and thermal images of surface temperature of
experimentalsectionsduringwateringon10July2012.
(a)Opticalimages.(b)Thermalimagesofpavementsduring
watering(16:00hon10July2012).Lighterishotter. 193
ListofFigures xix
Figure8.25 Comparison of thermal images of surface temperature of
permeablepavementsunder variousconditions(16:00h
on9through11July2012).Lighterishotter. 195
Figure9.1 Example experimental setups for temperature profile
measurements.(a)Asphaltpavement(PA1).(b)Concrete
pavement(PC1). 201
Figure9.2 Example spatial profile of near-surface air temperature
beforeandaftercorrection (PA1).(a)Beforetemperature
correction. (b)Aftertemperature correction. 203
Figure9.3 Example weather conditions during the experimental
periodforPA1and PC1.(a)PA1.(b)PC1.Datesaregiven
asmonth/day. 204
Figure9.4 Example profiles of near-surface air temperatures on
asphaltpavementPA1.(a)Temporalprofile.(b)Spatial
profile.AmbientAiristhe ambientair temperature froma
sensoronaportable weatherstationat67in(1.7m).Surface
andAir_xinaretheair temperaturesat0inandxinabove
thepavement surface,respectively.Datesaregivenas
month/day/year. 205
Figure9.5 Example profiles of near-surface air temperatures on
concretepavementPC1.(a)Temporalprofile.(b) Spatial
profile.Datesaregivenasmonth/day/year. 205
Figure9.6 Example weather conditions during the experiment period
forPA2and PC2.Dates aregivenasmonth/day/year. 206
Figure9.7 Example temporal profiles of near-surface air on asphalt
pavementPA2andconcretepavementPC2.(a)Asphalt
pavementPA2(B1).(b)Concrete pavementPC2(C1).
AmbientAiristheambientairtemperaturefromasensorona
portableweatherstationat67in(1.7m).SurfaceandAir_xin
areairtemperaturesat0inandxinabovethepavement
surface,respectively.Dates aregivenasmonth/day/year. 207
Figure9.8 Example spatial profiles of near-surface air temperatures
onasphaltpavementPA2(B1)andconcretepavementPC2
(C1)onthesame2days.Datesaregivenasmonth/day/
year. 207
Figure9.9 Experimentalsetup forwindbreak. 208
Figure9.10 Weather conditions during the experiment period for PA1.
Datesaregivenasmonth/day/year. 209
Figure9.11 Temperature temporal profiles of near-surface air before
andafterinstalling thewindbreak. Datesaregivenas
month/day. 209
Figure9.12 Temperature spatial profiles of near-surface air before and
afterinstalling thewindbreak.Dates aregivenasmonth/
day/year. 210
Figure9.13 Examples of original and normalized profiles of
near-surfaceairtemperature (asphaltB1andconcreteC1,
atvarioustimes).Dates aregivenasmonth/day/year. 213
xx ListofFigures
Figure9.14 Examples of measured and predicted normalized profiles
ofnear-surfaceairtemperature (asphaltB1andconcrete
C1,atvarioustimes). Dates aregivenasmonth/day/year. 214
Figure9.15 Correlation between coefficient C and wind speed at 2m
heightformodelingnormalizedprofilesofnear-surfaceair. 215
Figure9.16 Examples of predicted original and normalized profiles of
near-surfaceairtemperature. 216
Figure9.17 Examples of spatial contour plots of near-surface air tem-
peratures.(a)Up to1mheight.(b) Upto0.5mheight. 217
Figure10.1 Preparation of building walls and example test setup with
temperaturesensors. (a)Rawwall.(b)Wallpainting.
(c)Exampletestsetup withtemperature sensors. 220
Figure10.2 Experimental setup for temperature profile measurement.
(a)OnasphaltpavementPA1.(b)On concretepavement
PC1.(c)On smallasphalt(PA2orB1)andconcrete(PC2or
C1)pavementsforthesameperiod. 222
Figure10.3 Temperatures on both walls under the same conditions.
Airtemperature@Handairtemperature@Lare ambientair
temperaturesmeasuredat1.7m(67in)and0.3m(11.8in),
respectively.(a)At2in(5cm)height.(b)At20in(50cm)
height.(c)At48in(122cm)height. 224
Figure10.4 Example temporal profiles of wall and pavement tempera-
turesonasphaltpavementPA1.Ambientair isthe ambient
airtemperature from asensoronaportable weather station
at67in(1.7m).Walli_PSandWalli_xinarewallisurface
temperatures at0andxinabovethepavement surface,
respectively. Pavei_xin arepavementisurfacetemperatures
atxinfromthewall.Datesaregivenasmonth/day/year. 225
Figure10.5 Example spatial profiles of wall and pavement tempera-
turesonasphaltpavementPA1.Datesaregivenasmonth/
day/year. 226
Figure10.6 Example temporal profiles of wall and pavement tempera-
turesonconcretepavementPC1.AmbientAiris the
ambientair temperature fromasensoronaportable
weatherstationat67in(1.7m).Walli_PSandWalli_xinare
wallisurfacetemperatures at0andxinabovethe pave-
mentsurface,respectively. Pavei_xinarepavement isurface
temperatures atxinfromthewall.Datesaregivenas
month/day/year. 227
Figure10.7 Example spatial profiles of wall and pavement temperatures
onconcretepavementPC1.Datesaregivenasmonth/day/
year. 228
Figure10.8 Example temporal profiles for wall temperature on asphalt
PA2(B1)andconcretepavementPC2(C1).(a)Asphalt
pavementPA2(B1).(b)Concrete pavementPC2(C1).
Ambientairis theambient airtemperature fromasensoron
aportable weatherstationat67in(1.7m).Datesaregiven
asmonth/day/year. 228
