Palms, pastures, and swidden fields : political ecological trajectories and socio-natural transformations in peasant communities in Maranhão, Brazil

456 Pages·2002·20.8 MB·English

by  Porro, Roberto

PALMS,PASTURES,ANDSWIDDENFIELDS:POLITICALECOLOGICAL
TRAJECTORIESANDSOCIO-NATURALTRANSFORMATIONSINPEASANT
COMMUNITIESINMARANHAO,BRAZIL
By
ROBERTOPORRO
ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL
OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT
OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF
DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA
2002
Copyright2002
by
RobertoPorro
ToNoemi,FelipeandPedro
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
IreceivedfinancialsupportfordoctoralstudiesattheUniversityofFlorida(UF)
fromtheNatureandSocietyprogramoftheWorldWildlifeFund,Brazil (aprogram
sponsoredbyUSAIDandtheStateUniversityofNewYork);theCollaborativeResearch
NetworkprogramoftheInter-AmericanInstituteforGlobalChangeResearch(LAI);the
Inter-AmericanFoundationFieldResearchFellowshipfordoctoralstudents;theTropical
ConservationandDevelopmentProgramattheCenterforLatinAmericanStudies,UF;
andtheComptonFoundation,throughtheProgramofStudiesinTropicalConservationat
UF.Myspecialthanksgototheseinstitutionsandtothestaffassociatedwiththem.
Iexternmysinceregratitudeforthetheoreticalandmethodologicalsupport,and
fortheconstantencouragementprovidedbymysupervisorycommittee,withwhomI
learnedandsharedideasduringtheresearchandwritingofthedissertation:Dr.Anthony
Oliver-Smith,Dr.CharlesWood,Dr.MarianneSchmink,Dr.MichaelHeckenberger,Dr.
MichaelBinford,andDr.EmilioMoran.ExtensivethanksgotoDrs.PeterHildebrand,
H.RusselBernard,StephenPerz,NigelSmith,andTerryMcCoy.IalsothankKaren
Jones,PatriciaKing,MargaritaGandia,JoeSavastano,andthestaffattheAnthropology
Department,andattheCenterforLatinAmericanStudies,UF.
IamdeeplygratefultothefamiliesofJoseSoares,MiltonMonteiro,andlido
Lopes,wholetmestayintheirhouseseverytimeIvisitedLagodoJunco.Ratherthan
theproductofisolatedfieldresearch,thisdissertationistheresultofmorethanadecade
ofcloseworkwithpeopleintheMearimValley.Therefore,Iwouldliketoextendmy
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thankstoRaimundoVital,RaimundoHerminio,FranciscoMarcelino,JosedeBrito,Jose
MariaCameiro,ManoelRodrigues,ManoeldeFranqa,FranciscoLima,MariaAdelina,
MariaAlaides,AntoniaBrito,andLeonicePereirafortheprivilegeoflearningfromthe
struggleoftheirlives.IamgratefultopeopleworkingatASSEMA,andparticularlyto
LucieneDias,JaimeConrado,CarolinaMendes,ValdenerMiranda,JoseCarlos
Florencio,RonaldoCameiro,FrancinaldoMatos,TeresinhaAlvino,andIldethSousa.
IamgratefultothePrefeituraofLagodoJuncoforprovidingvaluable
information.IthankMarildoSousa,MauricioFerreira,AgenorNepomuceno,andArlan
Silvaforthefieldapplicationofsurveyquestionnaires;andAdrianafortranscribing
interviews.Fortheirhelpinthegenerationofmapsandotherdocuments,IthankJim
SloaninthecartographiclaboratoryatUF’sGeographydepartment;andHenriqueMota
andFranqois-MichelLeToumeau,inBrazil.IalsothankGlenGreenforhishelpwith
remotesensingprocedures.Formorethan15yearsofwork,supportandfriendship,I
thankAlfredoWagnerdeAlmeida.1amalsogratefultoKayePyle,AnthonyAnderson,
PeterMay,JorgeZimmerman,andRobertWilson,whowerecloseadvisorsinthe
transitionbetweenworkinMaranhaoandstudyandresearchinGainesville.Ialsothank
JoaquimShiraishi,KarlWirtz,Jean-FranqoisTourrand,DomingosDutra,Adolfo
Themme,EribertoRembecki,andKlausFinkan.
IgratefullyacknowledgethesupportofAntonioandAdaPorro,Eugenio
Caffarelli,andShiroandKazucoMiyasaka.Noemisharedwithmecollege,work,
graduatestudies,lifeexperiences,challenges,frustrations,andrealizations.Ithank
NoemiandourchildrenFelipeandPedrofortheeverydaylessonsIleamfromthem.I
alsoaskthemtoforgivemymistakesalongthistrajectory.
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PREFACE
ThemotivationstowriteontheeventsandprocessesthatoccurredinLagodo
Juncogobacktotheonsetofmyprofessionalcareer,andexpressanattempttoputa
capstoneon15yearsofsharedexperienceswiththepeopleandplacesthataremuch
moretomethanresearchsubjectsandresearchsites.
MyintroductiontoLagodoJuncowasin1986.Withabackgroundinagronomy,
Ibegana3-yearcontracttoassistpeasantcommunitiesthathadrecoveredtenurerights
previouslyerodedinthewakeoflandconflictsthatoccurredsincethe1970s.Asitturned
out,IlivedintheMearimValleyfor8years,mostofthattimeworkinginLagodo
Junco,themunicipalityIreturnedtoeveryyearsince1996tocarryoutresearchonthe
interplaybetweensocioeconomicandbiophysicalchange.Inthecourseof15yearsof
livingandworkingclosetothepeopleofSaoManoel,PauSanto,andothervillages,I
witnessedfirsthandthestrategiesadoptedintheirdailystruggletoovercomeinternal
differences,todealwithstructuralconstraints,tocopewithrestrictionstoaccessto
resources,andintheirstruggletosurvivethethreatstothebasisoftheirlivelihood.That
experience,inturn,hadaprofoundinfluenceonmysensitivitytoandappreciationofthe
complexityofpeasantsocialsystems.Theexperiencealsohighlightedtheneedtofurther
understandthedynamiclinksbetweenfeaturesofthelandscape,andprocessesthat
influenceland-usestrategies,andsocioeconomicstratification.
ImovedwithmywifeNoemiandsonFelipetoMaranhaoinJune1986.1was22
atthetime,havingrecentlygraduatedinAgronomyattheUniversityofSaoPaulo.Ihad
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noworkingexperienceinthefield,exceptforajobIheldintheprevious10months,
whenImanagedadairyfarminthestateofMinasGerais.Thefarmwasownedbya
familymemberwhohadrecentlyenteredintotheventure.However,overseeingastaffof
halfadozenlaborerstoupgradeandmakeprofitablethoseseveralhundredhectareswas
notexactlywhatIanticipatedforaprofessionalcareer.Myundergraduatestudies
focusedonruralsociologyandagrarianissues,andIexpectedtoengageinprogramsor
initiativesthatpromotedlanddistribution.AsBrazilhadjustenteredthetransitionto
democracy,expectationsabouttheimplementationofland-reformpolicieswereonthe
rise.Eventhoughthejobonthefarmwasconvenient,andfosteredthebeliefthatIwas
providingsupportformyfamily,theideaoftakingapositionoverseeingateamof
practitionerswhowereassistingpeasantcommunitiesintheirstruggletoadjusttoanew
resourcebasewasachallengetoNoemiandme.
TheprospectofworkinginMaranhaowasparticularlyattractivebecauseitwas
preciselythestatewehadvisitedin1983and1984andhadchosenasafuturelocationto
settledownandstartalifetogether.Earlyin1986,theDioceseofBacabalincentral
Maranhaoannouncedasearchforanagronomisttodirectateamofagricultural
technicians.Thedutiesweretoassistpeasantcommunitiesthathadrecentlysuffered
violentdispossessionfromthelandstheyworked,andwerethenintheprocessof
recoveringtheirtenurerights.UponmeetingwiththeprojectdirectorinSaoPaulo,we
agreedtoashortinitialvisittotheprojectregion.Duringa1-weekvisitinMarchofthat
year,Ihadtheopportunitytoattendoneofaseriesofgatherings(encontros)ofleadersof
thosecommunities.ThistookplaceinthecityofBacabal,wheretheyplannedacommon
strategyandproducedareporttobedeliveredtostateauthorities.Thearticulate
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narrativesexpressedbythose40peopleimpressedmefromthestart,givingfleshand
flavortodiscoursesandinformationIhadpreviouslyreceivedonlysecondhand.
ThegatheringinBacabalwasmyfirstopportunitytocontactactivistleadersof
localruralworkers’movements.DuringthemeetingIaskedpermissiontovisitseveral
villagesinLagodoJunco.MyvisittothecommunityofPauSantowasanevenmore
strikingexperience,andturnedouttobethekeytomydecisiontotakethejob.Having
justreadMarioVargasLlosa’s“TheWaroftheEndoftheWorld,”thevividaccountsof
PauSanto’sresidentsconjuredcountlesssimilarities,therebyputtingintohistorical
perspectivetwoverydistinctcontexts—therestrictionsimposedonLagodoJunco’s
peasants,ontheonehand;andtheassaulton19thcenturylibertariansfromCanudos,on
theother.InthefewdaysofmyfirststayinPauSanto,Itouredthevillageandits
surroundings,observinglocalland-usepracticeswhilelisteningtothenarrativesofBrito,
Milton,Dade,andotherresidents.IwastoldaboutthepolicebrigadethatassaultedPau
Santointhewinterof1985,shootingtodeathanelderlymanatthevillage’sentrance.
Thegovernmentsoonterminatedthelandowner’spropertyrights,andthe1,000-hectare
farmwasformallytransferredtothefederalgovernmentfortheimplementationofa
land-reform/settlementprojecttobenefitlocalresidents.ThedramaticeventsIwitnessed
thenpromptedthedecisionthatprofoundlymarkedthenextdecadeofmylife.
NoemiandImovedfromtheBraziliansoutheasttoalocationinMaranhao,
which,asitturnedout,wascompletelydifferentfromwhatweinitiallyhadinmind.Two
yearsearlierwehadvisitedfishingvillagesnearthecoastalcityofAlcantara,acrossthe
bayfromSaoLuis,thestatecapital.Instead,weendedupworkingandlivinginLagodo
Junco,atownof2,500-peoplesurroundedbypasturesandpalms.Thetownwascentrally
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locatedwithinBacabalDiocese,andwasa10-minuteridefromLagodaPedra,alarger
cityof25,000-people;andsiteoftheresidenceofGermanFranciscanfriars,oneof
whomwasthedirectoroftheprojectinwhichIbecameinvolved.Byservingas
coordinatoroftheagriculturalteamfortheACESAProject(ProjetoAqaoComunitariade
EducagaoemSaudeeAgricultural,IcouldlivewithmyfamilyinahouseinLagodo
JuncoownedbytheFranciscanfriarsthathadbeenvacantinthepreviousfewyears.The
largestresidenceintown,thehousewasbuiltinthe1940sbythearea’smainpolitical
chief.ItwassoldtotheChurchinthe1970s,anduntil1983wasusedtoeducateandtrain
youngmissionaries.Forthenext3years,thehousewasourhome(whereoursecondson
Pedrowasbom),headquartersoftheagriculturalproject,andlodgingsiteforproject
membersandvisitors.ItwasalsowhereNoemiandIexchangedvisitsandmaintained
rapportwithleadersoftheruralworkers’movementinthearea,whichwascriticaltoour
acceptanceduringandaftertheperiodoflandconflicts.Thebuildingalsoservedasa
focalpointtoformulateinitiativesdesignedtopromoteconservationandtherationaluse
ofnaturalresourcesinsettlementareas.
Intheyearsafter1986,whileNoemiparticipatedinaneducationalprojectinthe
nearbytownofPoqaodePedras,Ihadtheopportunitytoworkandperiodicallyvisit
dozensofpeasantvillagesthatexperiencedlandstmgglesinthemunicipalitiesofLago
doJunco,SaoLuisGonzaga,LagodaPedra,Bacabal,PauloRamos,VitorinoFreire,
LagoVerde,LimaCampos,andEsperantinopolis.In1989,thelocalCatholicChurch
resistedtheemergenceofanautonomoussocialmovementwithinitsownstructure.
NoemiandIthereforehelpedformanindependentalthoughmorerestrictedregional
alliance.Organizedbythelocalruralunions(SindicatosdeTrabalhadoresRurais),the
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alliancewascomposedofleadersrepresentingover2000householdsinsome25
communitiesinvolvedinsettlementprojectsinLagodoJunco,SaoLuisGonzaga,Lima
Campos,andEsperantinopolis.The1989foundingassemblyofASSEMA(Associagao
emAreasdeAssentamentonoEstadodoMaranhao)tookplaceintheLagodoJunco
house.Fromthenuntil1994weservedastechnicaladvisorsforthenewlyformed
organization,whichoperatedoutofthecityofPedreiras.ASSEMAwasagrassroots
movementaswellasaninstitutionthatprovidedtechnicalassistance,extension,and
trainingservices.
Initially,ASSEMAfocusedontheresolutionoflandconflicts,lobbying
governmentagenciesforpeasanttenurerights,andmoreequitabledistributionof
resources.Thisapproachwasgraduallybroadened,ontheonehand,byASSEMA’s
initiativesconcerningproductionandcommercializationofagriculturalandextractive
goods(mainlyrice,manioc,andbabassukernels)and,ontheother,byASSEMA’s
organizationofwomenworkingwithbabassu.By1991,localsocialmovementsactivein
theregionincludedassociationsofproducersinmostsettlementareasofthefour
municipalities,anagroextractivecooperative,andanassociationofruralwomenworkers
inLagodoJunco.Theconservationofbabassupalmswithinranches,andlocal
populations’accessrightstothosestandsbecamethetrademarkprioritiesforthevarious
institutions.Since1992,peasantsinLagodoJunco,SaoLuisGonzaga,and
EsperantinopoliswereabletoelectmembersofASSEMAastheirrepresentativesinthe
municipalities’legislative.Yet,ASSEMA’smainchallengewastofindanalternative
productionsystemtomeettheneedsofhundredsofhouseholdsstrugglingtosurvivein
theregion.Traditionalslash-and-bum,swiddenagriculturenolongermettheneedsof
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