Table Of ContentJoseph Magill • Nuclides.net
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH
Joseph Magill
Nuclides.net
An Integrated Environment
for Computations on Radionuclides
and their Radiation
With 268 Figures, 236 in Colour
79 Tables and a CD-ROM
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
JOINT RESEARCH CENTRE
Springer
Joseph Magill
European Commission
Joint Research Centre
Institute of Transuranium Elements
P. O. Box 2340
76125 Karlsruhe, Germany
[email protected]
www.nuclides.net
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Magill, Joseph, 1950-
Nuclides.net: an integrated environment for computations on radionuclides
and their radiation / Joseph Magill, p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-642-62817-7 ISBN 978-3-642-55764-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-55764-4
1. Radioisotopes. 2. Radioisotopes-Computer network resources. 3. Nuclides.net
(Computer file) I. Title
QC795.8.R3 M34 2002 539.7/52-dc21 2002030605
ISBN 978-3-642-62817-7
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Preface
Nuclides.net is an integrated environment for computations on radionu
clides and their radiation. The "integrated environment" is a suite of com
puter programs ranging from a powerful user-friendly interface, which
allows the user to navigate the nuclide chart and explore the properties
of nuclides, to various computational modules for decay calculations,
dosimetry and shielding calculations, etc.
The main emphasis in Nuclides.net is on nuclear science applications.
The Nuclides.net applications have arisen out of the author's experience
in a variety of fields in nuclear science ranging from advanced nuclear fuel
cycles, accelerator driven systems, non-proliferation and safeguards, to
aerosol science. The data used in Nuclides.net comes from a variety of in
tenationally recognised data sources (see Appendix 2 - The Nuclides.net
Database).
In contrast to the CD-based Nuclides 20001,2 predecessor, the appli
cations in Nuclides.net run over the internet on a web server. The user
interface to these applications is via a web browser. Information sub
mitted by the user is sent to the appropriate applications resident on the
web server. The results of the calculations are returned to the user, again
via the browser.
Nuclides.net has been developed at the Institute for Transuranium
Elements, a European Commission laboratory in Karlsruhe, Germany.
The product is aimed at professionals and students for reference data
on radionuclides and computations based on this data using the latest
internet technology. It is particularly suitable for educational purposes
in the nuclear industry, health physics and radiation protection, and in
nuclear and radiochemistry.
Comments or suggestions on this product should be sent to:
Dr. Joseph Magill, European Commission, Directorate-General JRC,
Joint Research Centre, Institute for Transuranium Elements (lTV),
p. O. Box 2340, 76125 Karlsruhe, Germany - Email: [email protected].
1 1. Magill: Nuclides 2000: An Electronic Chart of the Nuclides on CD-ROM, European
Commission 1999, Institute for Transuranium Elements, Karlsruhe, Germany, ISBN
92-828-6512-6, EUR 18737 EN. For further information, see the Nuclides.net website
at http://www.nuclides.net.
2 1. Magill: Nuclides 2000: An Electronic Chart of the Nuclides on CD-ROM. Atom
wirtschaft 45. Jg., Heft 10 - Oktober (2000).
VI Preface
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Roland Schenkel, director of the Institute for
Transuranium Elements, for his support and enthusiasm.
Special thanks go to all at Bilbomatica S.A. in Bilbao for the tech
nical realisation of the project. In particular I would like to thank
Angel Echevarria, Sonia Paniagua, Txemi Fernandez, Carlos Abad, and
Ruben Martin.
Very special thanks go also to Dr. Jean Galy for his dedication to the
project and for the development of new software modules. Jean devel
oped the new modules for dosimetry & shielding and for fission product
yields. He also played a significant role in the development of the "virtual
nuclides" module for mixtures of nuclides.
I would also like to thank Ms.Yvonne Galla for the development of
the Universal Nuclide Chart.
Thanks go also to Dr. Jens Otto of our technology transfer unit in Brus
sels and Mr. Luis Ferrao from DG ENTR for their help in contractual and
legal matters which arose in the course of the publication of Nuclides.net.
Thanks also to Dr. Claus Ascheron, physics editor at Springer-Verlag
in Heidelberg, for his enthusiasm for the project and for the many discus
sions we had on the book.
I would also like to thank many colleagues at the Institute who have
helped. Special thanks go to Dr. Piet van Belle for discussions and help
with the decay database, Ms. Daniela Weichhold for secretarial support,
Mr. I.-P. Michel and Ms. Fieny Pijls for their administrative support, and
the various "guinea pigs" who tried and tested the various beta versions
of the program.
The idea for the Nuclides Explorer user-interface and the Forum and
Newsboard in Nuclides.net arose from the enthusiasm of my children
Nicholas and Niels for computer games. These games and especially
their internet counterparts never cease to be a source of inspiration for
me (and for them!). Finally I would like to thank my wife Daniela for
her patience - das "Ding" ist jetzt fertig!
Karlsruhe, September 2002 Joseph Magill
Disclaimer
Neither the European Commission or any person acting on behalf of
the Commission is responsible for the use which might be made of the
following information.
Contents
A Quick Tour of Nuclides.net ...... ............ ......... . 1
The Installation Menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Nuclide Explorer ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Data............................................. ..... 5
Fission Yields and Averaged Cross Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Decay Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Dosimetry & Shielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Virtual Nuclides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 0 . . . . . . . . . . .
Universal Nuclide Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .1 1. . . . . . .
Forum & News. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .1 .2 . . . . . . . .
1. Getting Started with Nuclides.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 1. 3. . .
1.1 The Nuclides.net Program Suite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 3. . . . . .
1.2 Computer System Requirements ......... ..... .. .... .. 14
1.3 End User License Agreement (EULA) ... ............. . 14
1.4 Installing Nuclides.net on a Hard Disk ... . . . . . . . . . . . 14. . .
1.5 Starting Nuclides.net . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 18. . . . . . .
1.6 Direct Access to the Webserver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 8. . . . . .
1. 7 News and Forums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 .9 . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Scientific Notation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 2. 2. . . . . . .
1.9 Screen Captures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 2.2 . . . . . . . .
2. Background on Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 . . . . ..
2.1 The Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. 2. 5. . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Discovery of Radioactivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .2 5. . .
2.1.2 Structure of the Atom and Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . .2 6. . .
2.1.3 Synthesis of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 3.0 . . .
2.1.4 Nuclide Stability - The Nuclide Chart .... ..... .. 35
2.1.5 Nuclides Masses and the Atomic Mass Unit. . . . .. . 38
2.1.6 Binding Energy .............................. 38
2.2 Radioactive Decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . 3. 9. . . . . . .
2.2.1 Alpha (a) Decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .4 0. . . . . .
2.2.2 Beta-minus (~-) Decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .4 2. . . .
VIII Contents
2.2.3 Gamma Emission and Internal Conversion. . . . . . .. 43
2.2.4 Isomeric Transitions (IT) ...................... 44
2.2.5 Beta-plus (~+) Decay (Positron Emission) . . . . . . .. 44
2.2.6 Electron Capture (E). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
2.2.7 Spontaneous Fission (SF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 46
2.2.8 Proton Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 48
2.2.9 Special Beta-Decay Processes .................. 50
2.2.10 Heavy-Ion or Cluster Radioactivity. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
2.2.11 Magic Radioactivity .......................... 53
2.3 Nuclear Reactions .................................. 54
2.3.1 Cross-sections............................... 55
2.3.2 Neutron Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
2.3.3 Decay and Reaction Paths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
2.4 Nuclide Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
2.4.1 Decay Processes and Nuclear Reactions. . . . . . . . .. 59
2.4.2 Paper-Based Nuclide Charts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62
References ............................................ 64
3. Nuclide Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
3.1 Navigational Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
3.1.1 The Taskbar ................................. 71
3.1.2 "Build Your Own" Nuclide Chart ............... 73
3.2 DataSheets ........................................ 75
3.2.1 Mass Excess. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76
3.2.2 Mass....................................... 77
3.2.3 Half-life and the Decay Constant ............... 78
3.2.4 Nuclear Spin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. 78
3.2.5 Nuclear Isomers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
3.2.6 Parity....................................... 83
3.2.7 Number of Decay Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .. 84
3.2.8 Decay Modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
3.2.9 Branching Ratios (BR) ........................ 84
3.2.10 Decay Energy, Q ............................. 85
3.2.11 Daughter Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
3.2.12 Mean Decay Energies per Disintegration. . . . . . . .. 86
3.2.13 Spectral Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 86
3.2.14 Effective Dose Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 86
3.3 FactSheets......................................... 88
3.3.1 Average (Mean) Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. 88
3.3.2 Specific Activity ............................. 89
3.3.3 Isotopic Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
3.3.4 Spontaneous Fission (SF) Rate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
3.3.5 Specific Gamma Dose Rate at 1 m . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
3.3.6 Annual Limits ofIntake ....................... 91
Contents IX
3.3.7 Packaging and Transportation
of Radioactive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94
3.4 Fission Yields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
3.5 Cross-sections ..................................... 98
3.5.1 Case Study: Neutron Irradiation of Thorium ...... 98
3.6 Element Information ................................ 100
3.7 Articles ........................................... 101
3.8 Weblinks.......................................... 102
3.9 Search ............................................ 104
3.9.1 Search the Database ........................... 104
3.9.2 Search Nuclides.net ........................... 106
4. Decay Engine, A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109
4.1 Simple Radioactive Decay ........................... 109
4.2 Radioactive Decay Chains ........................... 109
4.3 Convergent and Divergent Branches ................... 111
4.4 Radioactive Equilibria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111
4.4.1 (fl» f2): Secular Equilibrium ................. 112
4.4.2 (fl > f2): Transient Equilibrium ................ 113
4.4.3 (fl < f2): The Half-life of the Parent is Shorter
than that of the Daughter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
4.4.4 (fl ~ f2): The Half-lives of the Parent
and Daughter are Similar ...................... 114
4.5 Decay Calculations ................................. 115
4.5.1 User Interface ................................ 116
I.
4.5.2 Options ..................................... 118
4.5.3 Print........................................ 119
4.5.4 Graph ...................................... 119
4.5.5 Details ...................................... 121
4.6 Examples ......................................... 122
4.6.1 Case Study: The Radioactive Decay of 60Co ...... 122
4.6.2 Case Study: The Radioactive Decay of 232U ...... 124
4.6.3 Case Study: How "Hot" is 242mAm? ............. 126
4.6.4 Case Study: "Age" Determination
of Plutonium Particles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128
4.6.5 Case Study: Alpha-Immunotherapy:
2l3Bi "Milking" from 225 Ac
for Cancer Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129
References ............................................ 132
r ...........................
5. Dosimetry and Shielding, 133
5.1 Absorbed Dose ..................................... 133
5.1.1 Dose Rate ................................... 133
5.1.2 Quality or Weighting Factor .................... 134
x
Contents
5.1.3 Equivalent Dose .............................. 134
5.1.4 Effective Dose ............................... 135
5.2 Attenuation of Gamma Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
5.3 Absorption of Gamma Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 137
5.4 Calculation of the Equivalent Dose Rate ................ 138
5.5 Absorption in Tissue ................................ 139
5.6 Attenuation in Shield Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 141
5.7 Build-up Factors (B) for Shield Materials ............... 141
5.8 The f-DOSE Module ............................... 141
5.8.1 User Interface ................................ 141
5.8.2 Options Window ............................. 143
5.8.3 Results Window .............................. 144
5.8.4 Graph Window ............................... 147
5.8.5 Input/Output Restrictions ...................... 147
5.9 Validation of the ResultslBenchmarking ................ 148
5.9.1 Case Study: Shielding 24Na .................... 148
5.9.2 Case Study: Shielding 60Co .................... 148
5.9.3 Case Study: Gamma Radiography with 192Ir ...... 150
5.9.4 Case Study: Thickness of Neptunium Targets ..... 151
5.10 Summary ......................................... 153
References ............................................ 154
6. Virtual Nuclides, A .................................. 155
6.1 Application of Virtual Nuclides to Radioactive Decay .... 155
6.1.1 Properties of the Virtual Parent ................. 156
6.2 Application of Virtual Nuclides to Dosimetry
and Shielding ...................................... 158
6.3 The Virtual Nuclides Module ......................... 161
6.3.1 Creating a Virtual Nuclide ..................... 163
6.3.2 Storing the Virtual Nuclide Information .......... 165
6.3.3 Running Applications with Virtual Nuclides ...... 165
6.4 Examples ......................................... 167
6.4.1 Case Study: A Simple Two Component Mixture . .. 167
6.4.2 Case Study: Multi-Component Mixtures. . . . . . . . .. 172
6.4.3 Case Study: Application to Fission . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 176
6.4.4 Case Study: Laser Induced Fission of Uranium .... 181
6.4.5 Case Study: Laser Irradiation of Copper .......... 184
7. Fission Products and Yields, Y ........................ 187
7.1 Nuclear Fission .................................... 187
7.2 The Fission Yield Module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
7.2.1 Definitions of Fission Yields ................... 191
7.3 Fission Product Yield Comparisons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
7.3.1 Fission Product Yield Comparisons: Parents ...... 192
