National and Regional Networks of Marine Protected Areas: A Review of Progress

2008·4.8 MB·English

by  Wells, S., Sheppard, V., van Lavieren, H., Barnard, N., Kershaw, F., Corrigan, C., Teleki, K., Stock, P., Adler,E., UNEP-WCMC

resilience
National and Regional Networks
of Marine Protected Areas:
I
UNEP WCMC A Review of Progress

assui
h, o^jJ^C
National and Regional Networks
of Marine Protected Areas:
A Review of Progress
The United Nations Environment Programme World
Conservation l^lonitoring Centre (UNEP-WCMC) isthe
biodiversity assessment and policy implementation
arm of the United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP WCMC (UNEP), the world's foremost intergovernmental
environmental organisation. UNEP-WCMC has been
in operation since 1989, combining scientific
research with innovative analysis and practical policy
advice.
UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
The UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road,
Cambridge CB3 ODL, would like to thank the UNEP Division of
United Kingdom Environmental Policy Implementation (DEPI), and
Tel: [phone] the UNEP Regional Seas Programmesforfunding this
Fax: [phone] report.
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.unep-wcmc.org Since 1981 UNEP-WCMC has compiled the World
Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), ajoint project
of UNEP and lUCN, produced by UNEP-WCMC and
© UNEP-WCMC/UNEP 2008 the lUCN World Commission on Protected Areas
(lUCN WCPA). The WDPA is the largest assembly of
ISBN: 978-92-807-2975-7 data on the world's terrestrial and marine protected
areas. The database holds spatial and attribute
information from governments and NGOs on over
This publication is also available online at
120,000 national and international protected areas.
http://www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/
Increasingly, the WDPA also holds information on
publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/
private, community and co-managed reserves. It is
also the basis for the UN List responding to the
United Nations General Assembly resolution in 1962
DISCLMMER
to record the status ofthe world's protected areas.
The contents ofthis report do not necessarily reflect In January 2005 an online and searchable database
the views or policies of UNEP-WCMC or contributory on marine protected areas, MPAGIobal, was launched
organisations. The designations employed and the as a collaborative effort to improve the marine
presentations do not imply the expressions of any specific contents of the WDPA. This effort was
opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP-WCMC or managed within the Sea Around Us Project, an
contributory organisations concerning the legal activity initiated and funded by the Pew Charitable
status of any country, territory, city or area or its Trusts, and hosted by the University of British
authority, or concerning the delimitation of its Columbia's (UBC) Fisheries Centre. In late 2008, the
frontiers or boundaries. data improvements made through the MPA Global
process were fully re-integrated into the WDPA,
which had undertaken a two year process of
redesign and redevelopment.
CITATION
UNEP-WCMC (2008). National and Regional
Networks of Marine Protected Areas: A Review of
Progress. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge.
UNEP promotes
environmentally sound
practices, globally and in its
own activities. This report is
printed on 100% recycled paper,
using vegetable-based inks and
othereco-friendly practices. Our
distribution policy aims to reduce
UNEP's carbon footprint.
SUMMARY
EXECUTIVE
Most of the marine protected areas (MPAs) around scales, but the many initiatives underway provide
the world, estimated to number about 5000, have much experience on how MPA networks can be
been established both on an ad hoc basis and established in practice, and howtheycan beadapted
through systematic planning processes. The to different needs and priorities. As the CBD
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) requires Programme of Work for the protection of marine
that Party states establish, by 2012, comprehensive, biodiversity recognises, there areatleastthree levels
effectively managed, and ecologically representative of spatial planning for MPAs within a country: a core
national and regional systems of protected areas, system of no-take areas (NTAs) within a large MPA;
and thatthere should be effective consen^^ation of at a larger system of multiple-use MPAs, including
least 10% of each of the world's ecological regions fishery management areas; and a national MPA
by 2010. Many countries have established their own system embedded within a national integrated
national targets which provide an incentive for the coastal management programme and overall
introduction of a systematic conservation planning management framework for the Exclusive Economic
approach to the establishment of MPAs, and there Zone (EEZ). This will inevitably result in a degree of
are now many initiatives to develop ecologically complexity.
representative MPA networks. This report reviews
the progress being made, using information from the Most national ecological MPA networks being
literature, MPA practitioners and planners, and planned comprise a range ofdifferent types of MPAs
conservation experts. The objectives of the report including both NTAsand multiple usesites. In several
are to: countries, such as Belize, Cuba, and Mexico, MPAs
are part ofa broad conservation planning process to
Disseminate experiences and lessons learned
develop a national protected area system plan. In
from initiatives under way at regional, national other countries and territories, such as South Africa,
and sub-national levels; Tanzania, Rodrigues (Mauritius), USA and Canada,
Promote a better understanding ofthe MPA networks are being developed separately from,
underlying principles and concept of, the although sometimes in coordination with, the
scientific basis for, and the issues to be process being used to establish terrestrial protected
considered when developing MPA networks, as area systems. Where MPA management is devolved
laid out in the guidelines prepared by the World to state or local-level governments, MPA networks
Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA)-Marine are generally being planned using a hierarchical
and the CBD; approach, with small networks nested within larger
national networks, as in Mexico, Indonesia, Australia,
Recommend actions needed to promote the
and the USA. This approach can however lead to a
establishment ofeffective MPA networks. lack of harmonisation, as seen in Australia, where
the state ofVictoria is establishing a system of NTAs
only, whereas other states and the Commonwealth
NATIONAL ECOLOGICAL MPA NETWORKS are including multiple use MPAs in their networks.
The reportdescribes 30 national and 35 sub-national Increasingly, NTA networks are being developed as
ecological MPA network initiatives. Most are still part of the zonation of multiple use MPAs,
under development with very few formally gazetted, particularly large ones such asthe Great Barrier Reef
and even fewerfully managed. Thosethat have been Marine Park in Australia, the SeaFlower MPA in the
declared and are being implemented are primarily San Andres Archipelago, Colombia, the Channel
networks that cover small areas, or that are part of Islands Marine Sanctuary in California, or as an
large management initiatives or multiple-use MPAs. integral part of a broader coastal management plan
Comparison is difficult because of the wide range of as on Socotra Island in Yemen. The South-east
approaches and different spatial or geographical
Executive Summary
Region MPA System Plan in Australia demonstrates Issues of sovereignty mean that regional MPA
how an MPA network can be integrated into a range networks will be made up of their constituent
of broader measures, such as recovery plans for national MPA networks, but there is demonstrated
listed species, fishery management closures and added value in countriescollaborating in the process,
regulations for oil and gas activities. Belize to ensure that principles such as connectivity are
demonstrates how a national MPA network can be fully addressed, and an ecosystem-based approach
part of not only a national integrated coastal taken. At presentthere are no guidelinesfor regional
management plan but also a regional MPA network MPA networks and it may be useful to look at how
(the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef), which incorporates the different types of regional groupings (such as
international protected area designations, such as UNEP RSPs, ecoregions, seascapes) can be used for
World Heritage Site (WHS). systematicconservation planning, and whetherthere
is need for further harmonisation.
REGIONAL MPA NETWORKS
APPLICATION OF ECOLOGICAL
20 regional MPA networks (i.e. networks involving PRINCIPLES FOR MPA NETWORKS
two or more countries) are described in the report.
Regions with a strong co-ordinating framework and Some of the best examples of the application of
with a supportive treaty or agreement tend to have theory and science are at sub-national level, and are
progressed furthest in terms of planning, including being undertaken by non-governmental
Europe through its Natura 2000 programme in the organisations (NGO) and academic institutions, with
EU states, and the North-East Atlantic and Baltic the involvement of local communities and other
through the Commission for the Protection of the stakeholders, as in Kimbe Bay in Papua New Guinea,
Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic and the Gulf of California in Mexico. Several regions
(OSPAR) and Helsinki Commission (HELCOM) and countries have developed their own sets of
respectively. The UNEP Regional Seas Programme criteria and principles, such as Australia, the North-
(RSP) regions for East Africa, the North-east Pacific, East Atlantic and Baltic, through the OSPAR and
South-East Pacific, and Wider Caribbean have HELCOM processes, and the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine
Protocols specifically aimed at promoting the Ecoregion (SSME) programme. These reflect the
establishment of MPAs, and are starting to address generic principlesthat have been developed overthe
the need to promote the establishment of ecological last decade and that are now encapsulated in the
MPA networks. The more recently created RSPs, guidelines available from WCPA-Marine. This reports
such asthe North-West Pacificand South Asian Seas, looks particularly at four of these: adequacy,
plan to address MPAs in the nearfuture or have MPA representation, resilience and connectivity.
related activities underdevelopment. Discussions are
underway through the relevant regional mechanisms The principle of representation is proving relatively
concerning the urgent need for MPA networks in the easy to address, provided adequate classifications
Antarctic and Arctic. Regional MPA networks are also and biodiversity distribution (or suitable proxies) are
being planned through direct agreements between available. However, the principles of adequacy,
WWF
countries, as in the case of the ecoregion resilience and connectivity are proving more difficult
based programmes (such as the East African Marine to incorporate, sincethere arefew specificguidelines
Ecoregion (EAME) and Western Indian Ocean Marine on applying them due to a lack of clear scientific
Ecoregion (WIOMER) programmes in the Western understanding. "Rules of thumb' are being used
Indian Ocean, and the Regional Network of MPAs in where possible and the rapid growth of research in
West Africa (RAMPOA) programme) and the this field means that new information is constantly
Conservation International (CI) seascape based becoming available.
programmes (such as Birds Head Seascape in
Indonesia and the EasternTropical PacificSeascape). Representativity: A fully ecologically
South-East Asia for example, has several nested representative network requires one or more MPAs
regional and national network programmes that are to be established for each example ofthe full range
being supported and co-ordinated through the Coral of biological diversity (from genes to ecosystems)
Triangle Initiative (CTI) which involves six countries. and the associated oceanographic environment
within the given area. Most MPAs are on the
Executive Summary
continental shelf and in coastal waters, and offshore several linked ecosystems. Most research on optimal
and deep-sea habitats are grossly under represented MPA size has been in relation to NTAs and
at present, although important steps are now being recommended sizes range from 10 to 100 km^. A
taken to address this shortcoming. For example, separate global analysis suggeststhatabout 35-60%
MPAs have been established for hydrothermal vents of the world's MPAs are in this size range; to assess
in Canada and the Azores, seamounts in Australia adequacy at national and regional levels, similar
and the UK, and deep-water cold coral reefs in analyses would need to be undertaken.
Norway, and a process is underway to develop a
mechanism for establishing MPAs on the High Seas. Resilience: Also referred to as replication or
Representation at the ecoregion level has been redundancy, resilience describes the ability of a
analysed in a recent study, using the Marine natural system, or MPA network, to survive natural
Ecoregion ofthe World (MEOW) classification. Global catastrophes and major impacts. It has been used
level analyses are availablethat show representation relatively little in the planning of MPA networks,
of reefs and mangroves has already surpassed the perhaps because scientific understanding of it in the
10% target for protection, but for such vulnerable marine environment is still incomplete, although
ecosystems, much higher conservation targets are good progress has been made in relation to coral
needed. In most case studies in the report, reefs and spawning aggregations, for which
conservation targets for protection of different guidelines are being tested at sites in Papua New
marine ecosystems and biodiversity within a network Guinea, Indonesia, and Belize. Given the importance
are often 20% or above for example: Belize has of this principle, efforts must be made to accelerate
conservation targets of 30% for reefs; 80% for its adoption in MPA network design.
spawning aggregations; and 60% for turtle nesting
sites, and is making good progress in meeting these. Connectivity: This refers to the linkages between
However, at the national and smaller regional level, sites in a network created through larval dispersal,
and for other less high profile ecosystems and migration of organisms and the mixing of waters
habitats, the necessary data are often lacking to through currents and other oceanic physical
assess representation. processes. Mechanismsforensuring and maintaining
good connectivity in an MPA network have yet to be
Adequacy: This refers to the need to ensure that fully demonstrated, and may require a variety of
the individual components of the network are of innovative approaches such as dynamic sites.
sufficientsize and appropriate shape and distribution National or even regional level MPA networks may
to maintain the ecological viability and integrity of not be able to protect all the key sites for particular
populationsand species. Globally, theestimated total species, and this emphasises the need for ensuring
of 5045 MPAs cover about 2.59 million km^, or that appropriate transboundary linkages are made.
0.72% oftheworld'socean surface, with only 12.8% Research is suggesting that there is more localised
of the total MPA area (or 0.08% of the world's retention ofpropagulesthan previouslythought, and
oceans) in NTAs. For most countries, data are still sites within a network may need to be within 10-100
insufficient to carry out a full analysis of adequacy. km of each other.
Although size, shape and spatial distribution should
be easyto measure, in practice it has proved difficult
to collateaccuratedata forseveral reasons, including METHODOLOGIES FOR MPA NETWORK
variationsin definitionsofMPAs (e.g. extenttowhich
ESTABLISHMENT
inter-tidal or terrestrial areas is included), lack of
information on boundaries, and poor reporting.
The methods and processes being developed for
Provisional analyses, including those undertaken by designing MPA networks range from simple, as in
individual countries, or through global assessments
Tanzania where sites were selected based on the
using the World Database on Protected Areas
knowledge of experts, to the more sophisticated
a(dWeDqPuAa)t,e iMnPdiAcanteetwtohraktsfaetwpriefseannty. Scooumnetriceosunthraivees where decision-support tools such as the software
package Marxan are used. Where resources are
and regions are however, starting to make good
available, as in the Bahamas, detailed inter-
progress towards planning for protection of their
disciplinary studies can be undertaken. A key lesson
territorial waters and EEZs, for example, in Kenya,
gMerxoiwcion,gatnedndseenvceyratloEduersoipgenaatnecloaurngteriMesP.AsThceorveeriisnga fdervoemltohpeacaMsePAstundeitewsoriskt,heiflsetnagkthehoofldteirmse nareeedteodbteo
Executive Summary
fully involved and scientific design principles applied. RECOMMENDATIONS
Although some MPA networks are being designed to
be implemented as a single package, as in some These reflect Resolution CGR4.MOT067, passed at
states in Australia, USA and Canada, a step-wise the World Conservation Congress in Barcelona,
process is often more practical. Pilot areas can be October 2008:
implemented, lessons learnt, and the network
progressively built up, the plan being refined as 1. Clarify terminology and harmonise
information, funding and capacity becomesavailable. approaches: Commonterms need to beagreed and
clear definitions and standardised nomenclature
The establishment of clear goals and objectives for should be developed to facilitate monitoring of
the network is essential. The main issue is often progress. WCPA-Marine, with The Nature
deciding whether the network is primarily for Conservancy (TNC), has already started this process
biodiversity protection or for resource management through the production of its guidelines, and other
for human use (such as fisheries management), organisations such as the CBD Secretariat should be
since different approaches may be required. The consulted to ensure an agreed approach. For
International Union for Conservation of Nature example, use of terms such as 'marine and coastal
(lUCN) Protected Area Management Categories can protected areas' (MCPAs) and 'fully protected' MPAs
be used to ensure that MPAs with a range of need clarification. Further guidance is needed on
objectives are incorporated into a network, as how the different types of MPA network, such as
demonstrated by Cuba and Australia. An MPA those comprising NTAs only or those that exclude
network will also often consist of sites under sites with very little sub-tidal habitat, can contribute
different forms of governance. Although individual to broader marine spatial planning approaches.
MPAs need toworktogethersothatoverall goalsand
objectives are achieved, if an MPA network is to 2. Strengthen capacity for MPA network
function fully, the sites do not necessarily have to be establishment: Capacity building is needed at both
managed in the same way. The lUCN typology of individual and institutional levels. Technical support,
governance types (divided into four categories: training, and thedevelopmentoftools and resources
Government managed; Co-managed; Private; and must be expanded, methodologies for MPA network
Community managed) may provide a useful tool for and systematic conservation planning should be
the development of MPA networks. promoted and disseminated, and additional
guidelines and materials produced where necessary.
Greaterawarenessofthe benefits ofand reasonsfor
SOCIAL NETWORKS MPA networks will increase support from all
stakeholders. The compilation of case studies and
lessons learned should be encouraged and
Social and learning networks, comprising managers
and other MPA practitioners and linking different facilitated, and shared between countries and
institutions, are essential catalysts and facilitatorsfor regions. Social networks facilitating the sharing of
experiences, challenges and successes amongst
the development of ecological networks of MPAs. At
regions should be enhanced through workshops,
the global level, WCPA-Marine provides an umbrella
study tours and twinning arrangements, and
network of experts, and numerous social networks
electronic networking. Organisations including lUCN,
are being established at regional and national levels.
Examples include the Locally Managed Marine Area the CBD, UNEP-RSP, international NGOs, and donors
(LMMA) network in the Pacific, the Caribbean MPA have a role to play in building capacity for MPA
Managers Network and Forum (CaMPAM), the network development, and initiatives such as the
Marine Learning Partnership that was established by
Mediterranean Protected Area Network (MedPAN),
and national social networks in the Philippines and TWNWCF,,CsIh,ouWlidldlbiefeenCcoonusreargveadt.ion Society (WCS) and
Vietnam.
Executive Summary
3. Expand regional, national and local 4. Monitor and evaluate progress in the
initiatives to establish MPA networks: This will developmentofecological MPA networks: This
require governments to accelerate their efforts, and will requirethe identification ofindicatorsto measure
civil society, regional organisations, and bilateral and progress, perhaps based on the self-assessment
multilateral assistance agencies to provide support. checklist prepared by WCPA-Marine, and improved
MPA networks need to be larger, and based on the mechanisms for tracking and reporting progress.
principles that have been determined for effective Increased efforts are required to establish effective
ecological networks (adequate, representative, and structured data-gathering initiatives at national
resilient, and connected), using appropriate and regional levels. Organisations such as WCPA-
biogeographical classifications and decision-support Marine, UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring Centre
tools (e.g. Marxan). At the same time, research is (UNEP-WCMC), CBD Secretariat, UNEP-RSP and the
needed to develop a better understanding of many national MPA bodies and experts can play a
concepts such as adequacy, connectivity and role.
resilience. The necessary funding should be made
available. Assessments of the costs and benefits of 5. Improve management of MPAs and of the
the network approach are needed so that countries MPA networks as they are established: It will
can budgetforitand appreciate itsvalue. Linking the be important to ensure that the new focus on
development of MPA networks with overall national establishing MPA networks does not result in the
conservation system planning, and harmonising the creation of more unmanaged MPAs or 'paper parks'.
process with the establishment of terrestrial Assessing management effectiveness can help to
protected area systems should be considered. encourage good management, and such
Appropriate policies and legislation must be evaluations should be undertaken on a regular basis.
introduced where needed. Gaps in MPA network The basic principles of good MPA network
development at the regional level could be reduced management and governance, as opposed to those
by improved coordination between government, for individual MPAs have yet to be clearly identified,
international organisations and NGOs, and the with indicators that can be used to measure the
development of guidance on how regional networks success of the network in reducing the rate of
might best be established. Support for the growing biodiversity loss.
number of social networks will help to promote the
development ofecological MPA networks. 6. Ensure that MPA networks are established
within a broader spatial planning and
ecosystem-based management framework:
MPA networks alone, even if effectively managed,
will not protect all marine biodiversity effectively.
Systematic conservation planning must be extended
to the oceans as a whole, as called for by the CBD.
Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive
in 2010 witii funding from
UNEP-WCIVIC, Cambridge
http://www.arcliive.org/details/nationalregional08well