Table Of ContentA Christian Life: Living Across the Lines
A Grounded Theory Study
of Understandings of the Atonement
Among Evangelical Christians
Jeremy H. Sievers
A thesis submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Theology and Religion
University of Otago, Dunedin
New Zealand.
30 June 2017
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Abstract
Aim: To explore evangelical Christians’ understanding of the atonement and establish
whether there is a relationship between different ideas of the atonement and wellbeing
in the lives of participants.
Methods: Christians were recruited through church newsletter advertisements from
churches that identified as being evangelical. Participants each took part in a
semistructured interview lasting between sixty and ninety minutes. Using constructivist
grounded theory, the resulting data was analysed until theoretical saturation was
reached.
Findings: The initial finding was that the specific beliefs participants held about the
atonement did not appear to be a predominant factor related to their wellbeing. Instead,
reports from participants implicated other factors as being more significant, particularly
their early experiences in life. However, as Grounded Theory Methodology is an
emergent research method, data analysis led to the construction of the theory, “A
Christian life: living across the lines.” This substantive theory is composed of two main
categories: “Living between the lines” and “Patterns in the thinking space.”T he theory
explains that while participants had expectations of a life of faith that was prescribed as
being between the lines, or boundaries, of beliefs, a majority of participants had spent
some time, and for some, significant time, outside the lines and in what the theory
describes as a “thinking space.”
Conclusions: It is proposed that rather than understanding Christian life as defined by a
narrow set of boundaries around beliefs and actions, it is preferable to expand that
understanding to encompass the wider experience of participants, whose lives wove in
and out of the lines, experiencing God both inside and outside the lines. Findings from
this study raised questions about the level of awareness of the different theories of the
atonement that have been important to Christian belief over the centuries. In general,
participants were reasonably ill-informed about the range of atonement images and
theories. In particular, recent vigorous debate about the atonement that has taken place
in the academy seems to have had limited impact on what is disseminated at the local
church level of the participants.
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Acknowledgements
I would like first to thank the brave people who volunteered to be participants in this
research. The majority responded to a small advertisement in a church newsletter,
contacting me and expressing interest in taking part. I am grateful for each of your
responses, interest in this project and proactive willingness to make that first contact. In
reflecting on the time spent with each participant, I was struck by the incredible
privilege it has been to have listened to their stories, heard some of their triumphs and
failures, and gained an insight into the ways that their faith has strengthened and
encouraged them throughout all that life has held. At one level, my participants can be
described as ordinary people, living ordinary lives. At another level, they are
extraordinary people; brave enough to volunteer to meet with me as a stranger, to share
their faith and life, and each with a remarkable story. I am so grateful to each one of you
for opening your life to me for the purposes of this research.
I must also thank my two supervisors, who have kept me on the straight and narrow
path to thesis completion and to whom I owe a great debt. In the early days of the
research, I emailed Dr Barbara McKenzie-Green to ask for some help with grounded
theory. At the time I was trying to learn grounded theory from reading the texts, which
was proving a difficult task. Barbara graciously agreed to help me, and for two and a
half years did so out of the goodness of her heart. Since becoming a formal supervisor
for the last year of the project, Barbara has been a tower of wisdom and encouragement.
I believe she may well know my data as well as I do, after many hours spent reading,
analyzing, discussing and theorizing together. This thesis simply could not have
happened without you. Professor Murray Rae has been an inspiration to me as a
theologian, and as a human being, for more than thirty-five years now, and I was
delighted when he took on the role of primary supervisor. Murray has walked with me
through the challenge of writing this thesis, and more than academically supervising, he
has been pastorally sensitive to some life/work challenges that were prominent for me
during the early years of the research. I am also indebted to Murray for his incredibly
detailed critiques as I have sent draft chapters in for discussion. His attention to detail,
and years of experience in the academy have been invaluable. More importantly,
Murray’s superb, extensive theological wisdom has been invaluable in guiding my
thinking, and reining me in when I have written from the heart but with looser attention
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to theological sensitivities. Any theological rashness or waywardness that remains in the
text is my fault entirely.
My thanks also to the University of Otago Doctoral Scholarships office for awarding
the scholarship that has allowed me to complete this research. I am deeply grateful and I
trust that this thesis does justice to the investment of the Scholarships office. I have a
clear memory of the first day I sat at my desk following confirmation as a PhD
candidate. At the time, I was working part-time in a church pastoral role, and I
remember thinking enthusiastically that I should easily have the research completed
within the three year time frame. Four years later, after some fairly eventful work/life
changes, I’ve finally made it. It is said that writing a doctoral thesis is a “journey,” and
that has certainly been true in my case. I want to thank my wife, Lorraine, who has
unflaggingly supported me in this journey, despite all the challenges that still being a
student in your 50’s entails. You have been my main supporter and best encourager – I
promise that I will now finally stop being a student, though hopefully I will never stop
being a learner. My thanks also to our four children, and their children, for your love,
support and encouragement. You realize that a PhD takes a long time when three
grandchildren are born along the way! Hopefully I can now have a little more time and
energy for you all. A special thank you to my talented designer-daughter Melissa
Bulkeley for her work on my two main theoretical diagrams.
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Contents
Abstract iii
Acknowledgments v
Contents vii
List of Tables xiv
List of Figures xiv
List of Abbreviations xiv
Chapter 1. Introduction: Setting the Scene 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PERSONAL STATEMENT 4
1.3 EVANGELICALISM 5
1.4 THE INTERFACE OF PSYCHOLOGY AND THEOLOGY 8
1.5 PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES 11
1.5.1 OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY 11
1.5.2 ATTACHMENT THEORY 14
1.5.3 IMPLICIT RELATIONAL REPRESENTATIONS THEORY 17
1.6 THE RESEARCH QUESTION 20
1.7 THESIS STRUCTURE 21
1.8 LANGUAGE USED FOR GOD 22
1.9 SUMMARY 22
Chapter 2. Atonement Theology 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION 25
2.2 THREE IMPORTANT CONCERNS 26
2.2.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE 26
2.2.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT 27
2.2.3 THE QUESTION OF GOD’S WRATH 29
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2.3 BIBLICAL MATERIALS 36
2.3.1 OLD TESTAMENT IMAGES 36
2.3.1.1 Ransom – Release from Captivity 37
2.3.1.2 Sacrifice – Covering over Sin 38
2.3.1.3 The Day of Atonement – the Scapegoat 39
2.3.1.4 The Suffering Servant – Isaiah 52:13 – 53:12 41
2.3.1.5 Summary 45
2.3.2 NEW TESTAMENT IMAGES 45
2.3.2.1 The Gospels 45
2.3.2.2 Other New Testament Images 49
2.3.2.2.1 Redemption 50
2.3.2.2.2 Sacrifice 50
2.3.2.2.3 Reconciliation 52
2.3.2.2.4 Justification 52
2.3.2.2.5 Adoption 53
2.3.2.2.6 Triumph over Evil 53
2.3.2.2.7The Complexity of Mixed Metaphors 54
2.3.2.3 Important Matters of Interpretation 55
2.3.2.3.1 The Hilasterion 55
2.3.2.3.2 “For us” – The Question of Substitution 60
2.3.2.3.3 The Transaction Question 62
2.4 ATONEMENT THEORIES 64
2.4.1 INTRODUCTION 64
2.4.2 CHRISTUS VICTOR 65
2.4.2.1 Ransom Theory 66
2.4.2.2 Recapitulation 67
2.4.2.3 Cosmic Battle 67
2.4.3 SATISFACTION THEORY 68
2.4.3.1 Anselm of Canterbury 68
2.4.3.2 Penal Substitution 70
2.4.3.3 Governmental Theory 76
2.4.4 MORAL INFLUENCE 77
2.5 CONCLUSION 78
Chapter 3. Grounded Theory: Methodology and Methods 81
3.1 INTRODUCTION 81
3.2 EARLY GROUNDED THEORISTS: GLASER, STRAUSS AND CORBIN 85
3.2.1 PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK 85
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3.2.2 METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 87
3.2.2.1 Position of the Researcher 87
3.2.2.2 Induction and Abduction 88
3.2.2.3 Emergence vs. Forcing 90
3.2.3 METHODS 93
3.2.3.1 Interviewing 93
3.2.3.2 Coding and Categorising 94
3.2.3.3 The Constant Comparative Method 96
3.2.3.4 Memoing 97
3.2.3.5 Theoretical Sampling 98
3.2.3.6 Core Category Development 99
3.2.3.7 Theoretical Construction and Integration 100
3.2.3.8 Criteria for Rigor 101
3.3 CONSTRUCTIVIST GROUNDED THEORY 103
3.3.1 PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK 104
3.3.2 A QUESTION OF ONTOLOGY 107
3.3.3 METHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 108
3.3.3.1 Position of the Researcher 108
3.3.3.2 Induction and Abduction 110
3.3.3.3 Emergence vs. Forcing 111
3.3.4 METHODS 112
3.3.4.1 Interviewing 113
3.3.4.1.1 Participant Selection Rationale 114
3.3.4.1.2 Ethics 115
3.3.4.1.3 The Interview Process 115
3.3.4.1.4 The Participants 116
3.3.4.2 Initial Coding 118
3.3.4.3 Constant Comparative Analysis 120
3.3.4.4 Memoing 121
3.3.4.5 Methodological Decisions 121
3.3.4.6 Theoretical Construction and Integration 123
3.3.4.6.1 Concept Development 1: Noticing Dichotomies 123
3.3.4.6.2 Concept Development 2: Conceptual Properties 124
3.3.4.6.3 Concept Development 3: Concepts of God 124
3.3.4.6.4 Concept Development 4: The Atonement Journey 124
3.3.4.6.5 Category Development: Living Between the Lines 125
3.3.4.7 Criteria for Rigor 127
3.4 CONCLUSION 128
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Chapter 4. Research Findings: Overview
A Christian Life: Living Across the Lines 129
4.1 INTRODUCTION 129
4.2 PARTICIPANT UNDERSTANDING OF THE ATONEMENT 131
4.2.1 BIBLICAL METAPHORS AND ATONEMENT MODELS 131
4.2.2 UNCERTAINTY 133
4.2.3 THE DOMINANT NARRATIVE 134
4.2.3.1 The Problem Presented 134
4.2.3.2 Action Taken by Jesus 135
4.2.3.3 The Consequences 135
4.3 LIVING ACROSS THE LINES: OVERVIEW 136
4.4 CONCLUSION 140
Chapter 5. Research Findings 2: Living Between the Lines 143
5.1 INTRODUCTION 143
5.2 PERSPECTIVES OF GOD 143
5.2.1 GOD IS RELATIONAL 145
5.2.2 GOD IS RESTORATIVE 146
5.2.3 GOD IS EXCLUSIVE/UNATTAINABLE 146
5.2.4 GOD IS PUNITIVE 147
5.2.5 GOD IS CONDITIONAL 148
5.3 PARTICIPANT THEOLOGIES 149
5.3.1 THE PROBLEM: THE GULF BETWEEN GOD AND HUMANITY 150
5.3.2 A PERSONAL PROBLEM 152
5.3.3 AN EXCLUSIVE SOLUTION 154
5.3.4 THE COST OF FOLLOWING 156
5.4 LIVING BETWEEN THE LINES 158
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