Table Of ContentThe People of The Book, ahl al-kitāb: A Comparative Theological
Exploration
By
Richard Lawrence Kimball
A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Irish School of Ecumenics, The University of Dublin
Trinity College, Dublin
2017
i
Declaration
I declare that this thesis has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at this or any
other university and that it is entirely my own work.
I agree to deposit this thesis in the University’s open access institutional repository or
allow the Library to do so on my behalf, subject to Irish Copyright Legislation and Trinity
College Library conditions of the use and acknowledgement.
Signed:
Richard Lawrence Kimball
ii
Summary
This thesis offers a comparative theological exploration of the challenges and opportunities
presented by the Qur’ānic representation of Christianity as the People of the Book, ahl al-
kitāb, in the Qur’ānic and commentary tradition. It examines the social, cultural and
historical background; through the early Arabic Christian response; and in modern
discourse for the purpose of improving of interfaith dialogue and understanding of
religious plurality.
The research is divided into three parts. The first part explores the Qur’ānic
understanding of the People of the Book through traditional Islamic exegesis, known as
tafsīr, of four respected Islamic scholars whose work spans more than a thousand years.
These scholars are Mujahid ibn Jabr (c. 722), Muhammad ibn Jarir Al-Tabari (d. 923),
Ismail Ibn Kathir (d. 1373) and Muhammad Rashid Rida (d. 1935). The research
demonstrates a wide range of opinions regarding Christians and Christianity. What the
Qur’ān has to say is highly contextual. One very interesting feature of the research
addresses the question concerning the salvific merits of Christianity after the arrival of
Islam, as well as what it means to be mu’min, a believer, and the opposite, kāfir,
unbeliever.
Part two takes a closer look at two important themes developed in the traditional
commentary. Through the application of a cluster of hermeneutical devices this thesis
attempts to create a greater appreciation of the social-cultural landscape leading into the
dawn of Islam. The first theme is the historical construct of the pre-Islamic period, the
asbâb an-nuzûl, the occasion of revelation, on the Arabia Peninsula and environs. The
traditional commentary suggests that this period was a time of lawlessness. Islamic culture
refers to the period as al-jāhiliyya, the Time of Ignorance. The research presented takes a
wide-angle view of the of the period by examining primary and secondary materials
concerning the different social, cultural, religious, economic and political factors affecting
the diachronic development of the religions of the People of the Book as it comes faces to
face with nascent Islam. Understanding the context of the revelation of any verse is critical
for interpreting the Qur’ān.
The second theme examines the Arabic speaking Christian response to Islam. From
earliest times, the extant Christian communities in contact with Muhammad and the
generations that followed rejected key Qur’ānic theological criticisms of Christian faith in
the Sonship of Jesus, as the Incarnation of God, as well as the Holy Trinity, as religious
excesses. Consequently, it should come as no surprise that many Christians, particularly
iii
Arabic speaking Christians living as dhimmīs, or protected citizens, take issue with the
Qur’ānic depiction of Christianity. The research of the post conquest period examines the
nuanced social and political changes that take place in the Levant region of the Eastern
Mediterranean. These changes facilitate the adoption of Islamic idiom, including use of
asmā allāh al-husnā, the Beautiful Names of God, as an apologetic tool of religious and
interfaith dialogue of the time, kalām, a natural progression from the use of Biblical and
Greek philosophic reasoning. The scholars examined include Christian Mutakallim
Theodore Abū Qurrah, (c. 820 CE), Sulaymān ibn Hasan al-Ghazzī (c. 940 CE) and Paul
of Antioch (c. 1200 CE).
Part Three of this thesis explores the modern use of the term People of the Book by
several Christian and Muslim scholars in the context of our increasingly interconnected
and pluralist societies. Here the focus is on the social, political and theological implications
of the concept of the People of the Book. The thesis inquires what if anything has changed
over the centuries of dialogue. The Muslim scholars examined include Yusuf Al-Qaradawi,
Ataullah Siddiqui, Farid Esack, Tariq Ramadan and Nayla Tabbara. The Christian scholars
examined include Daniel Madigan, Paolo Dall’Oglio and Fadi Daou.
The findings of the research endorse the Islamic hermeneutical science of tafsīr by
Christians interested in understanding the Qur’ān. Without a proper understanding of how
Muslims form an authoritative understanding of the Qur’ān, Christians are left in a
precarious position of attempting to interpret the Qur’ān through literal and personal
opinion, ijtihād, which could stray into the area of heretic interpretation, bid‘ah. The
science of tafsīr is a formal system of interpreting the Qur’ān based on tradition. However,
through diligence and sound scholarship more nuanced interpretations are possible
provided that the primary import of a verse is understood in its occasion of revelation,
asbâb an-nuzûl.
Through the examination of the period of al-jāhiliyya and in post conquest the
Arabic speaking Christian it is possible to appreciate the early Christian response to Islam,
as Islam becomes a world religion. Through the engaging dialogue of kalām, Arabic
Christian scholars employ a blending of Aristotelian reasoning theology and Islamic idiom
to support their belief in the Sonship of Jesus as the Incarnation of God, and use of the
term Trinity. However, the use of reasoning is different for Muslims and Christians.
Whereas Christians are comfortable with reasoning to lead them to greater knowledge of
God, traditionally Muslims limit the use of reasoning to strengthening their understanding
of the Qur’ān and would never elevate human reason above the importance of the Qur’ān.
iv
In contemporary times both Muslims and Christians involved in interfaith dialogue
and engaged in religiously pluralistic societies, understand the traditional strengths and
weaknesses of the concept of the ahl al-kitāb and its importance as a bridge between
Muslims and Christians. In societies where religious values are receding concepts like
citizenship and human rights offer an alternative means of functioning together as equal
citizens, but miss the opportunity to progress together as fellow believers, each coming to
understand themselves and the religious other better, as on a faith journey through life and
in service to God.
v
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God for the courage and strength to complete this thesis. May God be
pleased with this research and allow it to bear good fruit.
Many people helped and encouraged me to persevere over the course of this project. First
and foremost I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. Dr. Norbert
Hintersteiner who supervised my research and at key junctions provided constructive
insights that helped shape the final outcome of the thesis. Over the course of his
supervision he introduced me to some of the most respected minds in the field of Muslim-
Christian relations. I am especially grateful to have made the acquaintance of Sidney H.
Griffith, Shawqi N. Talia, David Thomas, Tariq Ramadan, Ataullah Siddiqui and Fadi
Daou. I would especially like to thank Sidney Griffith for his tutorage with the translation
th
of a text by the 10/11 century Bishop of Gaza, Sulaymān ibn Hasan al-Ghazzī in the
summer of 2013 and Shawqi Talia for showing me just how small the world really is.
The Irish School of Ecumenics has been a great place to study. I am grateful to all the staff
for their encouragemnt over the course of this research. I would like to especially thank
Gillian Wylie, who has been a constant source of support, Ina Merdjanova, for her support
leading up to the confirmation viva and Carlo Aldrovandi, for a listening ear and shared
concerns. In addition, it is important to acknowledge the support of the staff of Berkeley
Library and in particular Greg Sheaf, who helped in the final stages of this thesis.
The Religious Society of Friends has been a great source of support to me throughout the
course of this research. On a number of occasions The Robert and Kezia Stanley Chapman
Trust provided timely financial support for my research for which I am grateful and
humbled. My friends in the Galway Preparative Meeting have provided me with a
nurturing environment and the opportunity to share snippets of my research. I would like to
especially thank Joe Fenwick and Rachel Cave for proofreading the many drafts of my
thesis and offering their suggestions.
I would like to thank my wife Anne, sons, Liam and Tomás, as well as my mother, Susan
and brother, David. Their patience, sacrifice and encouragement have been a constant
source of inspiration to me.
I would also like to thank my Muslim, Christian, Jewish and non-religious friends for their
moral support and encouragement. May the research herein provide a bridge to bring us all
closer together in pursuit of a more just and peaceful world. In particular I would like to
thank my dearest sister, Mai Abu Marasa, my colleagues Marija Kovač and Vicki Crowley
and brothers Tareq Natsheh, Ali Selim, Hanna Massad, Eugene Duffy, Billy Hamilton,
Eric Stoddard, Khalid Sallabi, Sami Abo Akle, Mohamed Altawil, Ibraham Noonan, Addi
Yassin and Yakov Rabkin. In the same spirit, I would like to thank Sumia Sallabi and
Abdul Haseeb for their support with the translations of Tafsīr Mujahid and Al Manar,
respectively as well as Eoghan Mac Cormaic for his support in laying out this thesis.
Enfin, je voudrais revenir à la source de mon inspiration pour ce project, je tiens à
remercier la communauté chrétienne de la Tunisie de sud, et plus particulièrement Père
Dominique Tommy-Martin, pour avoir démontré pendant mon travail avec le Peace Corps,
qu'il est possible d’être chrétien et d'aimer et de respecter l'islam.
vi
Table of Contents
Declaration ................................................................................................................... ii
Summary ...................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... vi
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................... vii
Introduction ............................................................................................... 12
Research Aims and Questions ........................................................................................ 13
Literature Review ............................................................................................................ 17
Methodology, Fields and Sources ................................................................................... 24
Layout of Thesis ............................................................................................................. 31
Contribution and Originality ........................................................................................... 32
Part I: A Critical Study of Qur’ānic Christians in Islamic Tafsīr ........ 36
Chapter 1. Ahl al-Kitāb: The Qur’ānic People of the Book .................... 36
1.1 Introduction. .............................................................................................................. 36
1.2 A Brief History of the Qur’ān and the Islamic Science of Tafsīr ............................. 37
1.3 The Boundaries of the People of the Book: Surat Al-Baqarah, (2):62 ..................... 47
1.3a The Occasion of Revelation .................................................................................... 48
1.3b Belief, And Those Who Believe ............................................................................... 49
1.3c Jews, Christians and Sabi’un .................................................................................. 51
1.3d The Requisites of Salvation ..................................................................................... 54
1.4 Commit No Excesses in Your Religion, Surat an-Nisa (4):171 ............................... 57
1.4a Jesus the Messiah .................................................................................................... 59
1.4b Believe in His Messengers ...................................................................................... 62
1.4c Trinity & Tawhīd ..................................................................................................... 64
1.5 To Each of You an Open Way, Sūrat al-mā’idah (5):48 .......................................... 68
1.5a Muhayminam, Guarding in Safety .......................................................................... 69
vii
1.5b Abrogation of the Verses ......................................................................................... 72
1.5c Many Roads lead to God ......................................................................................... 73
1.5d The Curse of Taqlīd ................................................................................................ 75
1.6 Nearest in Love to the Believers Wilt Thou Find, Sūrat al-mā’idah, (5):82-83 ...... 78
1.6a Destined for Enmity ................................................................................................. 78
1.6b Christians as Believers ........................................................................................... 79
1.6c Invitations to Islam .................................................................................................. 81
1.6d Learned and Sincere ............................................................................................... 82
1.7 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 85
Part II: Challenging the Constructs: Expanding Tafsīr of the Qur’ānic
People of the Book ..................................................................................... 92
Chapter 2. Beyond Al-jāhiliyya: The Social and Historical Context of the
People of the Book in Pre-Islamic Arabia ............................................... 92
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 92
2.2 The Children of Abraham in Arabia ......................................................................... 97
All Nations will be Blessed ....................................................................................... 97
2.3 Pre-Islamic Poetry as a backdrop to Pre-Islamic Culture ...................................... 100
2.3a ‘Amru Ibn Kalthum .............................................................................................. 101
2.3b Imr al-Qais’ .......................................................................................................... 105
2.3c Zuhair Ibn Abu Salmā .......................................................................................... 108
2.4 The Jews of the Hijaz ............................................................................................. 112
2.4a Economy, Education & Developed Community .................................................. 114
2.4b Demographic Change and Expectations of a Messiah ......................................... 117
2.4c Muhammad’s relationship with the Jews of Medina pre-Hajj ............................. 120
2.4d Entry into Medina and the Treaty ........................................................................ 121
2.4e From Treaty to Enmity ......................................................................................... 124
2.5 Christians of Abyssinia .......................................................................................... 125
2.5a Social Political Considerations ............................................................................ 126
2.5b Biblical Abyssinia & Post Apostolic Christian Mission ...................................... 128
Some Theological Consideration ........................................................................ 130
2.5c Asylum, Dialogue & Détente ................................................................................ 132
viii
2.6 The Story of the People of the Book in the Himyar region of Southern Arabia ..... 136
2.6a From Sabaean to Judaism ...................................................................................... 137
2.6b The Beginnings of Christianity ............................................................................. 138
2.6c The People of the Trench ...................................................................................... 140
2.6d The Reign of Abreha and the Birth of the Prophet ............................................... 143
2.6e Christian Deputation from Najrān ......................................................................... 145
2.7 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 148
Chapter 3. Resisting the Construct: Post Conquest Christian Theological
Responses to Islam .................................................................................. 153
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 153
3.2 Setting the Scene: From the Death of Muhammad to Al-Quds .............................. 154
3.2a The Apocalypse or Days of Redemption .............................................................. 155
3.2b People of the Book, Dhimmitude or Détente ........................................................ 157
3.3 Early Christian Response to Islam: Arabic Speaking Christian Tradition Begins. 159
3.3a On the Triune Nature of God ................................................................................ 160
3.3b Greek Translation Movement ............................................................................... 162
Bayt al-Hikma, House of Wisdom. ....................................................................... 163
Ilm al-kalām, Theological Discourse ................................................................... 164
3.4 Three Arabic Speaking Christian Scholars ............................................................. 167
3.4a Theodore Abū Qurrah ........................................................................................... 167
3.4b Sulaymān ibn Hasan al-Ghazzī ............................................................................. 171
3.4c Paul of Antioch. .................................................................................................... 173
3.5. Abū Qurrah’s Scriptural Defence of the Trinity and Incarnation,
On the Trinity ......................................................................................................... 176
3.5a Abū Qurrah’s Scriptural Defence .......................................................................... 178
3.5b Abū Qurrah’s Rational Defence ............................................................................ 181
3.6 Sulaymān ibn Hasan al-Ghazzī’s Defence of the Trinity and Incarnation,
Faith of the Orthodox Christian ............................................................................... 187
3.6a Sulaymān’s Scriptural Defence ............................................................................. 188
3.6b Sulaymān’s Rational Defence ............................................................................... 190
3.7 Paul of Antioch’s Defence of the Trinity and Incarnation,
Letter to a Muslim Friend ...................................................................................... 193
3.7a Paul’s Scriptural Defence ...................................................................................... 195
ix
3.7b Paul’s Rational Defence ........................................................................................ 199
3.8 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 203
Part III: Contemporary Refiguring of the People of the Book:
Challenges and Opportunities ............................................................... 210
Chapter 4: Contemporary Islamic Use of the Term
People of the Book .................................................................................. 210
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 210
4.2 Confirming A Traditional Islamic View of the People of the Book ....................... 211
The Social Contract ............................................................................................. 211
Protected Citizens ................................................................................................ 212
Religious Freedom ............................................................................................... 213
4.3 Modern Western Islamic Use of the Term People of the Book .............................. 216
4.3a. Social Contract, New Contexts Reshaping Coexistence ...................................... 216
4.3b. New Sha’ria Discourse and the People of the Book ............................................ 221
4.3c. Modernity and the Changing Nature of Dialogue with Christians ...................... 224
4.4 A Common World Initiative ................................................................................... 228
4.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 230
Chapter 5: Contemporary Muslim-Christian Engagement with the
People of the Book ................................................................................... 233
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 233
5.2 From People of the Book to People of the Word (Daniel A. Madigan) ................. 233
5.3 Lover of Islam, Believing in Jesus (Paolo Dall’Oglio) ........................................... 238
5.3a. Social Inculturation and the Sacrament of Good Neighbours .............................. 240
5.3b Theological Considerations .................................................................................. 242
Abraham, Hospitality and a Model of Faith ........................................................ 242
Challenging Traditional Positions ....................................................................... 244
Harmony and Syncretism ..................................................................................... 246
5.4 Divine Hospitality: Foundations for Interreligious Coexistence
(Fadi Daou and Nayla Tabbara) ............................................................................... 248
5.4a Fitra and the People of the Book .......................................................................... 250
x
