Language Development across the Life Span: The Impact of English on Education and Work in Iceland

226 Pages·2018·2.62 MB·English

by  Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir

Educational Linguistics
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir
Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir E ditors
Language
Development
across the Life
Span
The Impact of English on Education and
Work in Iceland
Educational Linguistics
Volume 34
Series Editor
Francis M. Hult, Lund University, Sweden
Editorial Board
Marilda C. Cavalcanti, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Brazil
Jasone Cenoz, University of the Basque Country, Spain
Angela Creese, University of Birmingham, United Kingdom
Ingrid Gogolin, Universität Hamburg, Germany
Christine Hélot, Université de Strasbourg, France
Hilary Janks, University of Witwatersrand, South Africa
Claire Kramsch, University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A
Constant Leung, King’s College London, United Kingdom
Angel Lin, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
Alastair Pennycook, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Educational Linguistics is dedicated to innovative studies of language use and
language learning. The series is based on the idea that there is a need for studies that
break barriers. Accordingly, it provides a space for research that crosses traditional
disciplinary, theoretical, and/or methodological boundaries in ways that advance
knowledge about language (in) education. The series focuses on critical and
contextualized work that offers alternatives to current approaches as well as
practical, substantive ways forward. Contributions explore the dynamic and multi-
layered nature of theory-practice relationships, creative applications of linguistic
and symbolic resources, individual and societal considerations, and diverse social
spaces related to language learning.
The series publishes in-depth studies of educational innovation in contexts
throughout the world: issues of linguistic equity and diversity; educational language
policy; revalorization of indigenous languages; socially responsible (additional)
language teaching; language assessment; first- and additional language literacy;
language teacher education; language development and socialization in non-
traditional settings; the integration of language across academic subjects; language
and technology; and other relevant topics.
The Educational Linguistics series invites authors to contact the general editor
with suggestions and/or proposals for new monographs or edited volumes. For more
information, please contact the publishing editor: Jolanda Voogd, Senior Publishing
Editor, Springer, Van Godewijckstraat 30, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5894
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir • Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
Editors
Language Development
across the Life Span
The Impact of English on Education and
Work in Iceland
Editors
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
University of Iceland University of Iceland
Reykjavik, Iceland Reykjavik, Iceland
ISSN 1572-0292 ISSN 2215-1656 (electronic)
Educational Linguistics
ISBN 978-3-319-67803-0 ISBN 978-3-319-67804-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67804-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017956577
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Printed on acid-free paper
This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature
The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
Language Development Across the Life Span. English in Iceland:
From Input to Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir and Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
The Policies and Contexts that Frame English Education
and Use in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir
English Exposure, Proficiency and Use in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir
English Exposure and Vocabulary Proficiency at the Onset
of English Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ásrún Jóhannsdóttir
Learning and Using English: The Views of Learners at the End
of Compulsory Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir and Ásrún Jóhannsdóttir
Academic Vocabulary Proficiency and Reading Comprehension
Among Icelandic Secondary School Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Guðmundur Edgarsson
Perceptions of Relevance of English Education at Secondary
School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Anna Jeeves
Using English at University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir
Simultaneous Parallel Code Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir and Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
v
vi Contents
University Instructors’ Views on Using Curriculum Materials
in English . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
Writing English for Research and Publication Purposes (ERPP):
Personal Identity and Professional Voice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir and Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir and Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
Language Development Across the Life Span.
English in Iceland: From Input to Output
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir and Hafdís Ingvarsdóttir
Abstract The spread of English throughout the world is unprecedented in the scale
of its effects on communication across languages and cultures (Crystal 2003;
Seidlhofer 2011). Communities have also been affected by the spread of English.
More and more studies report increased translanguaging and use of Anglo-Saxon
cultural references and even the emergence of English varieties to serve needs in
linguistic spaces previously dominated by a local language (Blommaert 2013;
Shohamy et al. 2010; Higgins 2009). This book presents findings of a seven-year
research project on the influence of English on the changing linguistic environment
in Iceland. This chapter serves as an introduction to the book and its theoretical and
linguistic context. Each subsequent chapter presents findings of different studies
that make up the large-scale research project. The chapters range from examination
of English exposure on a national level to functions of English in education and the
work force. Together they provide a comprehensive description of the changing
ecology of a presumed monolingual community as it transitions to a pluri-lingual
society. The book focuses specifically on how massive exposure through popular
culture and social media in the everyday lives of Icelanders leads to high confidence
in English proficiency and the ramifications of that exposure and language confi-
dence in academic pursuits.
1 Introduction
The spread of English throughout the world is unprecedented in the scale of its
effects on communication across languages and cultures (Crystal 2003; Seidlhofer
2011). Communities have also been affected by the spread of English. More and
more studies report increased translanguaging and use of Anglo-Saxon cultural ref-
erences and even the emergence of English varieties to serve needs in linguistic
spaces previously dominated by a local language (Blommaert 2013; Shohamy et al.
B. Arnbjörnsdóttir (*) • H. Ingvarsdóttir
University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1
B. Arnbjörnsdóttir, H. Ingvarsdóttir (eds.), Language Development across the Life Span,
Educational Linguistics 34, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67804-7_1
2 B. Arnbjörnsdóttir and H. Ingvarsdóttir
2010; Higgins 2009). Whether the phenomenon is called English as a Global lan-
guage, English as an International Language, English as a Lingua Franca, English
as a World Language or even “English as a Lingua Frankensteinia” (Phillipson
2008), the fact remains that English has had a profound effect on most of the world’s
language communities. Whatever the research stance, the field has matured in that
previously value laden research approaches have given way to recognition of the
sociolinguistic value of the opportunity to examine language contact as it happens
on a world-wide scale.
Despite numerous studies on the effect of English, few, if any, examine the
impact of language contact based on a full range of data from an entire speech com-
munity. This book does this in a unique way as it describes the uptake of an addi-
tional language by speakers who already have a fully functional language used in all
domains in a linguistic space that is clearly defined geographically, culturally, and
politically; namely Iceland. Iceland provides a unique laboratory in which to study
the spread of English as it affects a whole country from the grassroots level where
English is used as a lingua franca while at the same time facing demands of English
at the official level. The goal of this book is to provide a comprehensive description
of the changing ecology of a presumed monolingual community as it transitions to
a pluri-lingual society. The book focuses specifically on how massive exposure
through popular culture and social media in the every day lives of Icelanders leads
to high confidence in English proficiency and the ramifications of that exposure and
language confidence in academic pursuits.
Iceland is in many ways a microcosm of a modern society. Its 330,000 inhabit-
ants speak a national language that has been preserved despite hundreds of years of
colonial rule by Denmark when the main language of administration and commerce
was Danish (Hauksdóttir 2015). In many ways, Icelanders have traditionally defined
themselves by their language and literature (Pálsson 1989) resulting in strong pres-
ervation efforts and robust institutional support of the national language which is
used today in all domains. The preservation of Icelandic was also aided by geo-
graphical isolation for centuries and even though communication with the outside
world was frequent, this was limited to the few who could afford to travel or obtain
an education abroad. The first modern foreign language which was taught in schools
was Danish. Towards the end of the twentieth century, English replaced Danish as
the main foreign language spoken by Icelanders. Educated Icelanders, as in other
countries, also spoke other foreign languages as the study of three to four languages
was compulsory in secondary education. The linguistic context of Iceland began to
change during WWII when Iceland was occupied by English speaking forces that
numbered almost a quarter of the population of the island at the time, and then in the
sixties by the Anglo Saxon cultural revolution and finally by the internet for the last
two decades or so. Iceland is a modern society with open borders and the highest
internet use in Europe (Statistics Iceland 2015). English is spoken by a large number
of Icelanders, used in business and education and is the language used almost exclu-
sively for accessing information through the internet. This has led to dramatic
changes in the Linguistic Landscape of Iceland that will be outlined in this book.
Language Development Across the Life Span. English in Iceland: From Input to Output 3
The seven-year research project reported in this book examined the rich daily
exposure to English, the resultant acquisition of English by Icelanders from youth
to adulthood and the functions English serves in Icelandic society. The project
examined the impact that massive exposure to English as a World Language has on
the development of the linguistic repertoire of modern day Icelanders, specifically
the local appropriation of English at the grassroots level on the one hand, and on the
other hand, its function in education where the use of English as an Additional
Language with ENL norms is expected. The book is thus of importance to anyone
interested in the spread of English whatever their theoretical stance. A central objec-
tive of the project was to gather evidence to inform educational policy in the
Expanding Circle of English use (Kachru 1985). In this effort, a main focus was to
document Icelanders’ exposure to English from an early age and examine the rela-
tionship between the nature and level of input and the functions, or output, neces-
sary to obtain further education in Iceland where academic proficiency in English is
assumed. The different studies that make up this project thus document English
input at different times during the lifespan1,2 and output at different levels of the
Icelandic education system. Ultimately this book describes language contact in the
Expanding Circle of English use and illustrates its effect within a speech commu-
nity with a full national language.
The project incorporates several studies that utilize a mixed methodology. Data
were collected about general English exposure of Icelanders through national sur-
veys, interviews, diaries, and proficiency tests with the participation of over three
thousand Icelanders over a 7 year period. A team of researchers, including profes-
sors and graduate students, conducted the different sub-studies that make up the
project. Each chapter in the book describes the findings of the different sub-parts of
the research project on the effects of the spread of English and use of English as it
relates to the life-long (bi-/multi-lingual) development of speakers in Iceland. This
includes cross–sectional self-report studies of exposure to both naturalistic (extra-
mural) and instructed English, cross-sectional self-reports on proficiency and func-
tions of English, and experimental tests on proficiency at different education levels.
The overarching question is how the type and amount of English Icelanders encoun-
ter in their daily lives serves the functions that are required in education. The
research project illustrates the expansion of individuals’ linguistic repertoires as a
result of the spread of English. The project also provides a comprehensive descrip-
tion of how English as a World Language affects a whole linguistic community.
1 Input/ouputInput in second language learning and use means the language that the learner/user
hears or reads. Output refers to the production of language through speaking and writing.
2 Lifespan is used here to refer generally to the age range of the participants in this cross sectional
study. As the focus is on education, infants are excluded and older people only participated in
national surveys of exposure and views of proficiency. Educational impact of the exposure focuses
mostly on younger people, students at all three levels of education from primary to tertiary.