Iranian and Anglo-American

317 Pages·2015·2.28 MB·English

Humour and Gender Hegemony: The Panoptical Role of Ridicule vis-à-vis Gender

by

Mostafa Abedinifard

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Comparative Literature
University of Alberta

© Mostafa Abedinifard, 2015
Abstract
In this dissertation, I read gender humour through the lens of masculinities studies and
critical humour studies to contribute to gender studies and humour studies. I engage two crucial
problems and propose solutions and possibilities. The first problem concerns the state of the
concept of ridicule—as a form/aspect of humour—within gender-related debates and specifically
ridicule’s place in challenging and enforcing gender hegemony. In such discussions, ridicule and
humour are frequently mentioned as insidious social control strategies through which certain
forms of masculinity and femininity are abjected. Despite their recognizing such role of ridicule,
however, the above debates never grant the role any theoretical significance. Critically reviewing
the related literature, I draw on Michael Billig’s theory of ridicule as a universal reinforcer of the
social order to argue that ridicule, as occurring in mainstream gender humour, plays a panoptical
role in enforcing inequitable gender relations. As a pervasive disciplinary tool, gendered ridicule
causes self-regulation in social agents who then wish to consent to the cultural ascendancy of
certain modes of gender performance and the subordination of certain other forms of performing
gender. By connecting this fearful consent to debates in gender studies about the role of abjection
in the creation of gendered subjectivities, I also hypothesize that ridicule occupies a necessary
role in the creation of gendered beings in the first place.
I raise my main argument in Chapter One. In Chapters Two to Four, I illustrate the
argument by analyzing various types of mainstream gender humour—with a particular emphasis
on the genres of canned joke and sitcom—from Iranian and Anglo-American (mainly the U.S.
and the U.K.) societies and cultures. The main humour types and/or categories include those
targeting women, homosexuals, effeminates as well as bodily non-normative and ethnic/racial
femininities and masculinities. For the Anglo-American sections (Chapter Two and parts of
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Chapter Four), besides related joke cycles, episodes from the sitcoms Two and a Half Men
(2003-2015) and Ellen (1994–1998) as well as spots from the Get a Mac Ad campaign (2006-
2009) are analyzed. For the Iranian part (Chapter Three and parts of Chapter Four), the main
focus is put on the contemporary Qazvini and Rashti joke cycles, the sexual humour of the
classical Persian satirist Ubeyd Zakani (d. ca. 1370), and his modern counterparts.
My main argument, given humour’s well-known potential for subversion, may arouse the
objection that ridicule always exists as a counterhegemonic tool to resist hegemonic gender
norms. I tackle this possibility in the last Chapter Five, where I discuss the possibilities and
restraints of feminist and in-group lesbian humour as representative categories of fringe or non-
mainstream gender humour. I argue that this resistant humour, due to its minimal normalizing
power—compared to the heft of mainstream gender humour—apparently cannot offset the
latter’s disciplinary power and thus be effectively subversive of patriarchy.
The second problem I focus on is the way gender theories inform prevalent textual
analyses of gender humour. Examining the pertinent literature, I argue that the critical blind spots
need redress and enrichment. While analyzing gender humour, I argue, many humour scholars
either resist gender theories or employ theories incapable of explaining intricacies related to
gender. To address this insufficiency, I suggest that we use—as I have done throughout—
comprehensive theories that not only embrace multiple masculinities and femininities but also
heed the intersection of gender and other identity elements. I use Raewyn Connell’s gender
hierarchy model as a case in point.
In contrast to much work in gender studies that recognizes, yet understates, ridicule’s
political force in favour of gender hierarchy, this research contends that the above force is
universal and central, and therefore must be foregrounded in gender studies. Within humour
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studies, too, the research contrasts with exculpatory accounts of humour that downgrade or deny
humour’s effect on the social order. My findings indicate that mainstream gender humour, while
reflecting the gender order, is most likely to affect that order, too. Finally, unlike much research
in feminist humour studies that puts too much hope in seditious functions of fringe or marginal
gender humour, I find that such humour cannot find recognition among mainstream audiences
unless its underlying assumptions find cultural ascendancy.

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Preface

Parts of chapter 1 of this thesis have been published as Abedinifard, Mostafa. “Rev. of
Laughter and Ridicule: Towards a Social Critique of Humour.” Inquire: Journal of Comparative
Literature 2.1 (2012). Web.
Parts of chapter 4 of this thesis have been published as Abedinifard, Mostafa. “The
Gender Politics of Iraj Mirza’s ‘Aref-Nameh’.” Iran Nameh: Persian Quarterly of Iranian
Studies 28.3 (2013): 200-215.

v
to Soroush and Ava

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Acknowledgements
First off, I sincerely thank the University of Alberta and particularly the Office of
Interdisciplinary Studies for supporting my studies for four years, during which I developed the
current research. Besides, this dissertation could not have been possible without the support of
several wonderful people. I owe many especial thanks to my supervisor, Professor Jerry Varsava.
During the long period of the research, Dr. Varsava proved to be a very knowledgeable and
experienced, reliable, approachable, and patient mentor and friend. While our numerous talks
continually assisted me in developing and refining my research interests, Dr. Varsava’s shrewd
feedback on my work not only helped me significantly improve the research but also avoid serious
pitfalls in it. It has been a real pleasure and privilege working under his supervision. I am also very
much grateful to my other Supervisory Committee members, Professors Irene Sywenky and Manijeh
Mannani, whose meticulous and conscientious readings of my work always resulted in further
improvement of my writing and research. Dr. Mannani’s feedback was especially helpful regarding
the Iranian chapters. As members of my Candidacy Exam and/or Examining Committee(s),
Professors Daniel Fried, Gary Kelly, and Lahoucine Ouzgane provided helpful and constructive
feedback. They all have my gratitude. I am also particularly indebted to my External Reader,
Professor Delia Chiaro, for her very helpful comments on the dissertation.
Also, I am truly obliged to the professors with whom I took courses, or whose courses I
audited, during my PhD program at the University of Alberta. While some of these professors did not
have a direct role in the accomplishment of this research, their seminars all provided me with
propitious opportunities to hone my reading, analytic, and/or writing skills. These dear Professors are
Brad Bucknell, Odile Cisneros, Daniel Fried, Cressida Heyes, Lahoucine Ouzgane, Asma Sayed,
Irene Sywenky, and Massimo Verdicchio.
Morteza Abedinifard, Janet Afary, Marco Montiel Katz, Michael Lahey, Christelle Paré, Paul
Sprachman, Henry Suderman, and Amy Tahani-Madaen, all dear professors, colleagues, or friends,
provided many useful readings of my work. I thank them most warmly. I owe a special thank you to
Henry, Marco, and Michael for being overly generous with their feedback.
Other dear professors and colleagues also liberally shared with me sources and/or viewpoints
related to my research. These professors and colleagues, to whom I am very thankful, are Michael
Billig, Myra Marx Ferree, Homa Katouzian, Peter McGraw, Nasrin Rahimieh, Mohammad Reza
Shadrooymanesh, Evan Siegel, Zahra Tizro, and Shervin Vakili.
I am also indebted to my extended family and friends in Iran. While I have been away from
them for several years, I have always been inspired by their goodness and love. I am especially
grateful to my mom and dad, Afsar and Ebrahim, for their never-ending love and support.
Last but not least, I owe countless thanks to my best friend and sweet wife Zeinab and to our
children, Soroush and Ava. A while ago, a dear family friend wittily mentioned that upon my
defense, the PhD would belong to Zeinab for all her sacrifices during my studies. Although jocular,
this friend’s statement, always reminds me of Zeinab’s incredibly helpful support, family
management, love, and patience during the lengthy period for this research. All my love and thanks
to her!
We were blessed with Soroush and Ava during my PhD studies. We cannot be more thankful
for their being there all these years. I was always inspired with their unconditional love and cheerful
spirit. The opportunity they have granted me to play with them, cuddle them, watch cartoons, read
books, listen to music, and share knock-knock jokes with them, gives me incredible energy, helps me
feel all the more human, and keeps me hopeful of a better future for humanity, a hope that underlies
this research. To that wish, and particularly to a world bereft of gender inequality, I have
wholeheartedly dedicated this work to them.
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Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. ii
Dedication ............................................................................................................................................ vi
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ vii
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................. viii

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS AND THE OUTLINE OF THE ARGUMENT ............................................... 1
MAIN FIELDS OF STUDY INVOLVED: CONCISE INTRODUCTIONS .......................................................... 3
Masculinities Studies ..................................................................................................................... 3
Critical Humour Studies ................................................................................................................ 6
CORPUS AND METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 8
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................................ 17
CHAPTER SUMMARIES ....................................................................................................................... 19

CHAPTER ONE: Gender Hegemony and Ridicule: The Norm-Reinforcing and Disciplinary
Functions of Mainstream Gender Humour ..................................................................................... 22
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 22
RIDICULE AS A MAINTAINER OF HEGEMONIC GENDER RELATIONS: A REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE IN GENDER STUDIES ..................................................................................................... 24
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF RIDICULE AND ITS DISCIPLINARY FUNCTION SINCE ANTIQUITY.............. 29
An Apology for Ridicule and Its Embarrassing Power: Michael Billig’s Theory of Ridicule as a
Universal Maintainer of Social Order.......................................................................................... 34
PATRIARCHAL GENDER ORDER: MASCULINITY THEORIST RAEWYN CONNELL’S MODEL OF GENDER
HEGEMONY ....................................................................................................................................... 40
Connell’s Gender Hierarchy Model............................................................................................. 41
WHAT MAINTAINS THE GENDER HEGEMONY?: RIDICULE AS AN AGENT OF ABJECTION VIS-À-VIS
GENDER ............................................................................................................................................ 52
RIDICULE AND GENDER HEGEMONY: THE NORM-REINFORCING AND DISCIPLINARY FUNCTIONS OF
MAINSTREAM GENDER HUMOUR ...................................................................................................... 56
READING THE GENDERED IN HUMOUR: RECONSIDERING GENDER HUMOUR IN LIGHT OF CONNELL’S
MODEL ............................................................................................................................................. 66
SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................................... 72

CHAPTER TWO: Mainstream Gender Humour as Patriarchal Panopticism: The Case of
Contemporary Anglo-American Folk and Pop Culture Humour ................................................. 74
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 74
MAINSTREAM GENDER HUMOUR AS PATRIARCHAL PANOPTICISM: RIDICULE AND THE RELATIONAL
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDERED SUBJECTIVITIES ................................................................................ 78
Humour and the Fundamental Assumptions of Gender Hierarchy ............................................. 79
Hegemonic Masculinity and Its Others: Humour and the Relational Construction of Dominant
Masculinity .................................................................................................................................. 88
Marginalized Masculinities and Femininities: The Cases of the Bodily Non-Normative and
Ethnic/Racial Gendered Identities ............................................................................................. 104
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 127

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CHAPTER THREE: Shame, Ridicule, and Gender Order: Iranian Modernity and the
Contemporary Iranian Gender Jokelore ....................................................................................... 129
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 129
CONTEMPORARY IRANIAN ETHNIC JOKES: OVERVIEW AND LITERATURE REVIEW........................... 130
THE QAZVINI AND RASHTI JOKE CYCLES: CASE STUDIES OF THEIR SOCIO-HISTORICAL ORIGINS AND
POSSIBLE FUNCTIONS ...................................................................................................................... 133
Modern Transformations in Iranian Gender Order and the Laughable Man from Qazvin ........ 135
The Stigmas of Lacking Gheirat and Effat: The Rashti Cuckold and His Wanton Woman as
National Lessons ........................................................................................................................ 156
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 174

CHAPTER FOUR: Gendered Ridicule as a Persuasive/Punitive Tool: Humour and the
Rhetorical Power of Hegemonic Gender Norms ........................................................................... 178
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 178
PHALLOCENTRISM AS A PUNITIVE/PERSUASIVE TOOL IN HUMOUR: FROM CLASSICAL PERSIAN HAJV
TO MODERN IRANIAN SATIRE .......................................................................................................... 180
The Rhetorical Power of Anal Integrity in Zakani’s Sexual Satire ........................................... 186
Overlaps in Old and New Gender Structures: Hajv, Gendered Insults, and the Modern Iranian
Satire .......................................................................................................................................... 198
GENDERED RIDICULE AS A RHETORICAL TOOL IN CONTEMPORARY ANGLO-AMERICAN HUMOUR: THE
CASE OF THE GET A MAC AD CAMPAIGN (2006-2009) ................................................................... 212
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 224

CHAPTER FIVE: Fringe Gender Humour and the Subversion of Gender Hierarchy: The
Cases of the Feminist and Lesbian Humour .................................................................................. 230
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 230
FRINGE GENDER HUMOUR AND ITS SUBVERSIVE POSSIBILITIES: CHALLENGING THE OPTIMISM IN
GENDER HUMOUR STUDIES ........................................................................................................... 2311
Rebellious Gender Humour: The Case of Feminist Humour .................................................... 233
The Disciplinary Functions of Rebellious Humour: Feminist Humour and Its Possible
Unsolicited Effects .................................................................................................................... 236
Inclusive Feminist and Lesbian Humour: Solutions? ................................................................ 246
REVIEWING A CASE STUDY: A CRITIQUE OF HELENE SHUGART’S INTERPRETATION OF ELLEN (1994-
1998) .............................................................................................................................................. 259
SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................... 265
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 267
Works Cited ...................................................................................................................................... 276
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Introduction
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEMS AND THE OUTLINE OF THE ARGUMENT
In this dissertation, I will draw on theories and debates in critical humour studies and
masculinities studies to contribute to gender and humour studies. As an emergent field within the
broader interdisciplinary area of humour studies, critical humour studies primarily involve
problematic ethical and socio-political aspects of humour and laughter. Masculinities studies,
which overlap feminist studies, adopt a critical attitude towards masculinity and mainly aim to
disclose non-democratic and detrimental forms of masculinity. I engage two crucial problems
and propose solutions and possibilities. To support my claims, I cite and analyze various
instances of gendered folk and popular culture humour from (contemporary) Iranian and Anglo-
American (mainly the U.S. and the U.K.) societies and cultures.
The first problem I examine is the state of the concept of ridicule—as a form or aspect of
humour—within gender-related debates. More specifically, I focus on ridicule’s place in both
challenging and enforcing gender hegemony. In many theoretical discussions related to gender,
ridicule and disparaging humour are frequently mentioned as insidious social control strategies
through which certain forms of masculinity and femininity become subject to abjection. While
recognizing such a function for ridicule, the above debates never grant ridicule any theoretical
significance. Reviewing the related literature and connecting it with some masculinities theorists’
debates on what helps sustain gender hegemony, I draw on Michael Billig’s discussion of
ridicule as a universal reinforcer of the social order to argue that ridicule, in the form of gender
humour, apparently plays a central panoptical role in enforcing inequitable gender relations. As a
pervasive disciplinary tool, ridicule can induce self-regulation in social agents’ gender
1