Invitation to Oceanography

609 Pages·2008·88.29 MB·English

by  Paul R. Pinet

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pinet, Paul R.
Invitation to oceanography / Paul R. Pinet. — 5th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-7637-5993-3 (alk. paper)
1. Oceanography. I. Title.
GC11.2.P55 2009
551.46—dc22
2008030875
6048
Printed in the United States of America
12 11 10 09 08 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
To Marita E. Hyman, a wise, passionate, caring partner who shares her life with me living on a special
parcel of land on a large Earth in a vast universe.
v
Contents
in Brief
1
CHAPTER The Growth of Oceanography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2
CHAPTER The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3
CHAPTER The Origin of Ocean Basins. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4
CHAPTER Marine Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5
CHAPTER The Properties of Seawater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6
CHAPTER Wind and Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7
CHAPTER Waves in the Ocean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8
CHAPTER Tides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
9
CHAPTER Marine Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
10
CHAPTER Biological Productivity in the Ocean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11
CHAPTER The Dynamic Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
12
CHAPTER Coastal Habitats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
13
CHAPTER Ocean Habitats and Their Biota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
14
CHAPTER The Ocean’s Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
15
CHAPTER The Human Presence in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
16
CHAPTER Global Climate Change and the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Appendices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
vi
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
1
CHAPTER The Growth of Oceanography. . . . 1
1-1 Oceanography: What Is It? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-2 Historical Review of Oceanography . . . . . . . . 3
Ocean Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Early Scientific Investigations . . . . . . . . . . 13
Modern Oceanography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1-3 Current and Future Oceanographic Research. . . 24
Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 FEATURES
FEATURES Science by Numbers. Powers of 10. . . . . . . . . . . 40
Science by Numbers. Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Probing
The Process of Science. The Scientific the Sea Floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 A Trek to the Crest of the Mid-Atlantic
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Marine Ridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Archeology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Science by Numbers. Conversions. . . . . . . . . . . 24
3
CHAPTER The Origin of Ocean Basins . . . . 59
3-1 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3-2 Sea-Floor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Geomagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Spreading Ocean Ridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3-3 Global Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Subduction Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Plate-Tectonic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Opening and Closing of Ocean
Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
A Summary of Global Plate Tectonics . . . 80
3-4 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2
CHAPTER The Planet Oceanus . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2-1 The Earth’s Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 FEATURES
The Earth’s Interior Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The San Andreas
The Earth’s Exterior Envelopes . . . . . . . . . 33 Fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Process of Science. Sea-Floor Spreading . . . 80
2-2 The Physiography of the Ocean Floor . . . . . . 33 The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Red Sea . . . 83
Bathymetric Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Science by Numbers. Sea-Floor Spreading
2-3 Geologic Differences between Continents and Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Ocean Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 4
CHAPTER Marine Sedimentation. . . . . . . . . 92
The Earth’s Topography and
Bathymetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4-1 Sediment in the Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Mass Balance and Isostasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Classification of Marine Sediment . . . . . . 93
2-4 The Physiography of the Western North Atlantic Factors That Control Sedimentation . . . . 94
Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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5-6 Gases in Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5-7 The Ocean as a Physical Chemical System . . 167
Reservoirs of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
The Global Water Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
The Ocean as a Biogeochemical
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
FEATURES
Science by Numbers. Parts per Thousand . . . . . 142
The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
Chemical Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
4-2 Sedimentation in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 Desalination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Shelf Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Other Physical
Deep-Sea Sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Properties of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Deep-Sea Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 The Ocean Sciences: Chemistry.
The Sea-Surface Microlayer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4-3 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Science by Numbers. Order of Magnitude. . . . . 179
Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
FEATURES CHAPTER 6 Wind and Ocean Circulation. . . . 187
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Probing
the Sea Floor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 6-1 Atmospheric Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Dust
Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Coriolis Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
The Process of Science. Climate
General Wind Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Variability and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. Catastrophic 6-2 Surface Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Meltwater Scouring and Deposition. . . . . . . . . 112 The Wind-Driven Currents of the
The Ocean Sciences: Geology. The Sea Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Drying Up of the Mediterranean Sea . . . . . . . . 126 Types of Surface Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Science by Numbers. Sedimentation A Model of Geostrophic Flow . . . . . . . . . . 203
Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Refinement of the Geostrophic-Flow
Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
CHAPTER 5 The Properties of Seawater . . . . 134 6-3 Deep-Ocean Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Water Masses and Density-Driven
5-1 Basic Chemical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Water Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
A General Model of Thermohaline
5-2 Basic Physical Notions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Circulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5-3 The Water Molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 6-4 Water Flow in Semienclosed Seaways . . . . . 218
The Solutes of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6-5 Future Discoveries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5-4 Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Principle of Constant Proportion . . . . . . . 145 Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Factors that Regulate the Salinity FEATURES
of Seawater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 The Ocean Sciences: Physics.
Effects of Salinity on the Properties Current-Measuring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 The Ocean Sciences: Physics.
Hurricanes and Typhoons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5-5 Chemical and Physical Structure
Science by Numbers. Volume Transport . . . . . . 211
of the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Underwater
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Weather and Waterfalls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
viii CONTENTS
7 FEATURES
CHAPTER Waves in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . 230
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Wave-Measuring
Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7-1 Properties of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Science by Numbers. Wave Celerity (Speed) . . . 238
Wind Generation of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Tiny
7-2 Wave Motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Waves and Giant Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
The Motion of Water Particles Beneath The Ocean Sciences: Physics. The
Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 Megatsunami of December 26, 2004 . . . . . . . . 256
Motion of the Wave Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8
7-3 The Life History of Ocean Waves . . . . . . . . . 239 CHAPTER Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Growth of Waves in the Fetch Area . . . . . 239
Storm Waves Outside the Generating 8-1 Tidal Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 8-2 Origin of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Waves in Shallow Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Equilibrium Model of Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Shoreline under Storm Conditions . . . . . . 245
Dynamic Model of the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7-4 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 8-3 Tides in Small and Elongated Basins . . . . . . . 278
7-5 Other Types of Progressive Waves . . . . . . . . 253 8-4 Tidal Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Internal Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Tsunamis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 8-5 Power from the Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Study Guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
FEATURES
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Currents
through Tidal Inlets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Science by Numbers. Speed of the Tide. . . . . . . 279
The Ocean Sciences: Biology. Tidal
Rhythms in Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
The Ocean Sciences: Physics. Internal Tides
Shape the Bottom Gradients of the
Continental Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Science by Numbers. Depth of the Bay
of Fundy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
9
CHAPTER Marine Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9-1 Ocean Habitats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9-2 Classification of Organisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Kingdom Monera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Kingdom Protista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Kingdom Chromista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Kingdom Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Kingdom Metazoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
9-3 Classification by Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9-4 Basic Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Salinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Hydrostatic Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9-5 Selected Adaptive Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Life Cycles of Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Functional Morphology of
Fishes (Nekton) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Benthic Communities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
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