Into the Nano Era: Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS

363 Pages·2009·5.871 MB·English

by  R. W. Cahn (auth.), Dr. Howard R. Huff (eds.)

SpringerSeriesin
MATERIALS SCIENCE 106
SpringerSeries in
MATERIALS SCIENCE
Editors:R.Hull R.M.Osgood,Jr. J.Parisi H.Warlimont
The Springer Series in Materials Science covers the complete spectrum of materials physics,
includingfundamentalprinciples,physicalproperties,materialstheoryanddesign.Recognizing
theincreasingimportanceofmaterialsscienceinfuturedevicetechnologies,thebooktitlesin
thisseriesreflectthestate-of-the-artinunderstandingandcontrollingthestructureandproperties
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98 PhysicsofNegativeRefraction 104 TransparentConductiveZincOxide
andNegativeIndexMaterials BasicsandApplications
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106 IntoTheNanoEra
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AnAlternativeApproach Editor:H.R.Huff
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Howard R. Huff
Editor
Into The Nano Era
Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS
With136 Figures
Dr.HowardR.Huff
2116CumberlandHillDrive
Henderson,NV89052,USA
E-mail:[email protected]
SeriesEditors:
ProfessorRobertHull ProfessorJürgenParisi
UniversityofVirginia UniversitätOldenburg,FachbereichPhysik
Dept.ofMaterialsScienceandEngineering Abt.Energie-undHalbleiterforschung
ThorntonHall Carl-von-Ossietzky-Strasse9–11
Charlottesville,VA22903-2442,USA 26129Oldenburg,Germany
ProfessorR.M.Osgood,Jr. ProfessorHansWarlimont
MicroelectronicsScienceLaboratory InstitutfürFestkörper-
DepartmentofElectricalEngineering undWerkstofforschung,
ColumbiaUniversity Helmholtzstrasse20
SeeleyW.MuddBuilding 01069Dresden,Germany
NewYork,NY10027,USA
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Thissnapshot oftheICindustryandseveral opportunitiesfor
enhancedgrowthinthecomingnanotechnologyeraisdedicated,
inmemoriam,toRobertCahnandFredSeitz,whopassed away
duringthepreparationofthisbook.
RobertCahn(1924–2007), FRS,UniversityofCambridge,
and
Fred Seitz(1912–2008), RockefellerUniversity,President,Emeritus
and
NationalAcademyofSciences,Past President
Foreword
Silicon and Electronics
Thereadershipofthismonograph,IntoTheNanoEra–Moore’sLawBeyondPlanar
SiliconCMOSmaybesurprisedtofindthattherewasatimewhensiliconmaterials
didnotreignsupreme.WhilesiliconwasutilizedbothbeforeandduringWorldWar
Iforcodedwirelessdetectors,itwasquicklyreplacedbyVacuumTubeElectronics
inthelate1910sand1920s.Thehamradioproponentsoftenpreferredtousegalena
(PbS) in the 1920s, a naturally occurring mineral which was much less expensive
thanpolycrystallinesilicon.Inthelate1930sandwiththeadventofWorldWarII,
however,siliconbecamethepreferredmaterialforradardetectors.Siliconhascon-
tinuedtobethedominant(andpre-eminent)materialduringtherestofthetwentieth
century (although germanium and silicon transistors were commercialized during
the1950s).Duringthelastseveraldecades,wehavecomefromtheelectronicsrevo-
lutioninitiatedbythetransistorinthelate1940stothemicroelectronicsrevolution,
exemplifiedbytheintegratedcircuit(IC)thatwasinventedinthelate1950s,totoday
whereweareonthevergeofthenano-technologyRevolution.Ofcourse,manyother
materialsareutilizedintoday’smostadvancedICs andsurelythiswillbethecase
inthenano-technologyofthefuture;yet,thebasestillappearstoincludesilicon.
Howard Huff and his authors have developed this monograph to guide us into
the nano-technology era by focusing on some current aspects of silicon materials
relevanttothefabricationofICsandseveralpotentialopportunitiesinthenanoera.
The importance of defects and their control, both in the as-grown silicon and dur-
ingthechip-makingprocess,isemphasized.Indeed,theadmonitiontomakecertain
that the quality of the silicon used in chips should be examined carefully before
rather than after making the chips repeats one of the basic principles that we dis-
coveredduringWorldWarII.Thatis,wefoundbyusingmetallurgical-grade(poly-
crystalline)siliconinthe1940sthattheerraticbehaviorandirreproducibilityofthe
electroniccharacteristicsofdetectorswasdependantonthepriorhistoryofthesili-
viii SiliconandElectronics
conmaterialutilized.Thismonographnotonlystirsupoldmemoriesoftheearlier
days but brings me to further appreciate the fabrication of today’s opto-electronic
devices.
Andsuchalsoappearstobethecasewiththe“bottom-up”fabricationtechnology
inthenanoera.Indeed,itappearsthatthedrivetominiaturizationisfinallyapproach-
ing the stage where quantum effects will become of the essence, which is quite an
achievementwhenIrecallthehamradioyearsofthe1920sandtheearliestsilicon
materials utilized for radar in the late 1930s and early 1940s. I wish Howard Huff
andthepersonnelinvolvedinthecreationofthismonographanditsreadershipwell
intheexcitingandnever-endingjourneytowardsthenextrevolutionininformation
andcommunicationstechnology–thenanoera.
NewYork,March2008 FredSeitz(deceasedMarch2008)
Foreword
Silicon and the III–V’s:
Semiconductor Electronics
(Electron, Hole, and Photon) Forever
WithoutsiliconandtheIII–Vsemiconductors,today’sworldofelectronicsdoesnot
exist,wouldnotexist,likelycouldnotexist.Thereisnosubstituteforthesemicon-
ductor, Si ranking at the top. I learned about transistors and semiconductors from
JohnBardeen,andthenaboutdiffusedSidevices,intheirinception,withJohnMoll
(andCarlFroschandtheoxide)beforelearningfurtherfromwork,colleagues,meet-
ings,andjournalarticles.Veryearly,forexample,itwasatrickofjunctionassembly
ofmySitunneldiodesthatrevealedphonon-assistedtunnelingsostrikingly(1959),
thefirstunambiguousexperimentshowinginelastictunneling,whichmadeitpossi-
ble for R.H. Hall and me to introduce into solid-state science and technology (via
Si!)thenow-universaltunnelingspectroscopy.WhydeviatefromSi,whygooffex-
ploring the III–V’s, when Si proved to be so rich and wondrous – with Bell Labs’
oxide and diffused device technology at its pinnacle; indeed, the very technology
that,movingwest,spawnedthe“chip”andSiliconValley?AndwhataboutSi,and
itsfurtherrole?Canwenowbesobold(sorude)andcommitthesinofevenasking
thequestion?
At the 1962 Institute of Radio Engineers (I.R.E., now the I.E.E.E.) Solid State
Device Research Conference, Art D’Asaro and I engaged in a friendly argument
withBobNoyceinwhichwedefendedthecasefortheIII–V’s(lightemitters)while
Bob argued for a still greater future for Si. Bob knew that Art and I, at Bell Labs,
knew about Si from the beginning. Why leave it? We, and Noyce, were both right
and both wrong! The two, Si and the III–V’s, are complementary. We need both.
Weneedtheelectron,hole,andphoton,thethreesouniqueinperformanceandtied
togethersoincestuouslyacrosstheenergygap.Recall:noenergygap,nosemicon-
x SiliconandtheIII–Vs
ductor,noelectronandhole,notransistor,nolightemitter,nosolarcell!Whatelseis
likethis,andtechnologicallysotractable?Nothingapproachestheuniquenessofthe
semiconductorinwhatitdoesandinhowitallowsustoimpose,torenderamazing
tinysub-microscopicconnectedactive-devicegeometriesinacrystallinesubstance,
in a nano-ordered substance, and as a consequence realize unbelievable electronic
functions–the“chip.”
We can now properly ask: When we were shown in John Moll’s group (Bell
Labs,1954–1955)abagfullofDuPontSineedles–nano-rods,asitwere–should
wehavetriedtoattackatsuchanopportunemomentnano-assembly?To,say,assem-
bleatonceactivemicroscopiccircuitry?Orshouldwehaveproceeded,ashappened,
togrowcrystalsfromtheneedles(i.e.,“self-assemble”bulkcrystallineSiatom-by-
atom)andproceedbit-by-bittothe“chip”?Tobesure,shouldwehaveproceeded,
Oh,soslowlybut,Oh,sosuccessfully?Whocouldhavepredicted,inthebeginning,
allthatwouldbeneededtomaketoday’sSi“chip”?Andnow,incontrast,whereand
whatisthescienceandtechnologyofdirectnano-assembly?Isit,say,anultra-tiny
complex system that must take on great variety and form and not be just the bland
simple atom-stacking of crystal growth? Is this (a complex system) even possible
withoutinvokingsomeformofsorcery,i.e.,withoutfacingtheabyssoftotalguess-
ingoroutrightchicanery?Doesitmakesenseandinwhatsubstance?Dowewishto
abandonSi?Ifso,why?
WenotonlybuildinSi,itteachesus.Forexample,itistheSip–n–p–nswitch,in
itssuccessfulformasthethyristor,thatteachesuswhyaCMOSelementina“chip”
breaksdownorwhyaIII–Vtransistorlaserswitchesandexhibitsnegativeresistance.
Asamatteroffact,itwasthep–n–p–nswitchthattookSito“SiliconValley.”Itis
Sithatwehavemoststudiedandunderstandbest,andthatinformsusfurtherinhow
torealizeastillsmallerandmoresophisticated“chip.”Ifthereisanythingpastthe
integratedcircuit,the“chip,”itisSithatguidesustowardsit.
FromthestandpointoftheIII–Vsemiconductor,heterostructuresanddirecten-
ergy gaps, and quantum wells, we see silicon’s strengths and weaknesses. We see,
in comparison with III–V’s, better and worse choices, what can be done profitably
and what can not. Silicon, from 1-ton single crystal ingots to the tiniest integrated
circuits,issovaluableandsuchaperfectguidetowhatispossibleintheconstruc-
tionofultra-smalldevices,thatwemustcontinuetostudyit.Wecannotaffordnot
to,andthusoweaconsiderabledebttoourcolleaguesHowardHuffandhisauthors
forexposingustomoreSiscienceandtechnologyasweenterthenanotechnology
era.
The most questionable topic is that of device self-assembly. We know it works
for crystal growth, even in the case of a 1-ton Si crystal, but does it work for the
most intricate and tiniest integrated circuits? Note that carbon self-assembles into
diamond,butwepolishandpatterntodevelopthemirrorfacetsthatmakediamond
anattractiveandexpensivejewel.WhenSiself-assembles,itistoosimple.Wepat-
tern and process it, at increasingly tiny size, into a more complex and useful form,
intoanintegratedcircuit,a“chip.”Nowhowsmallcanitbe,ordowelookforother
ways(heterojunctions,quantumwells,etc.)toobtainhigherperformance?Concern-
SiliconandtheIII–Vs xi
ing“self-assembly,”whereandwhatisthesciencetomakeitrealandnotmerelya
wishorjustaname?
IconsiderSianditsstudy,withtheaidandaddedperspectiveoftheIII–Vsemi-
conductor (and quantum wells), as holding the answer to whether “self-assembly”
makessense.Weallgetoldstudyingtheabundantlyrichandfertilesemiconductor,
but the semiconductor itself, because of the gift of the electron, hole, and photon,
andtheiramazinglyconnectedperformance,doesnotweakenorage.Itisnotgoing
away.WehavenochoicebuttostudySiandtheIII–Vfamilyofmaterials.Nothing
elsehasworkedsowellinelectronicsorpromisessomuchmore.Thereisreasonfor
thesemiconductortoprevail,andforustowelcomethisnewbookofHowardHuff
andhisauthors.
Urbana,April2008 NickHolonyak,Jr.