insect pollinator and weed ecology in a mango agroecosystem nurul huda binti abdul universiti ...

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INSECT POLLINATOR AND WEED ECOLOGY IN
A MANGO AGROECOSYSTEM

NURUL HUDA BINTI ABDUL

UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
2016
INSECT POLLINATOR AND WEED ECOLOGY IN
A MANGO AGROECOSYSTEM

By

NURUL HUDA BINTI ABDUL

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy

March 2016
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, my utmost gratitude to Allah S.W.T. for all His blessings that
enabled me to complete my study. My deepest gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof.
Che Salmah Md. Rawi, whose expertise, generous guidance and tireless supervision had
made it possible for me to work on this research of my interest. Her immense
enthusiasm, critical comments throughout my research undertakings had opened my
mind to look at my research in different ways and perspectives. Appreciation is also
extended to my co-supervisors Dr. Hamdan Ahmad and Encik Abdul Razak Mohd
Nordin for their support especially during the field study.
I am indebted to the Dean of School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Penang, for providing transportation facilities and support staff to help me in
my research. I like to extend my appreciation to the Universiti Teknologi MARA
(UiTM) Perlis Farming Unit and Dean of Faculty of Plantation and Agro-technology
UiTM Perlis for their generosity to allow me to work on their mango orchard as my
study site. I value greatly the assistance and commitment by all staff members in helping
my research.
A very special thanks goes to Prof Abu Hassan Ahmad for his keen interest in
my research and willingness to review the draft of my thesis. His suggestions had
tremendously improved the presentation of this thesis. I am grateful to Prof. Emer. Knut
Rognes (Oslo, Norway) who helped me to identify many insect specimens (through
digital images) sent to him. Without his help I will still be struggling with several insects
that are too difficult for me to name them, within my limitation of knowledge on insect
taxonomy. My gratitude also goes to Prof Sarker Mohammad Rezaul Karim (Faculty of
Agro-based Industries, UMK) for his willingness to confirm my identification of weeds.
Unexpected errors that remain are, of cause entirely my own responsibility. Many thanks
to my fellow graduate colleagues; Zul, Dhia, Wani, Mel, Mira, Kak Su, Kak Emeilia,
Fakhrul and many others who may not be mentioned here for their helpful insights and
good conversations. Our friendships had enriched my experience during my stay in
USM.
I gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for
awarding me a scholarship to pursue my study. I am also thankful for the research grant
(awarded to my supervisors) by Universiti Sains Malaysia to carry out this research
without which this study would not be possible. Finally, I like to express my eternal
gratitude and appreciation to my parents and siblings for their endless support (morally
and emotionally) and encouragement and for the freedom given to me to continue my
pursuit of knowledge that truly motivates me to complete my study. I doubt that I will be
able to convey my gratefulness fully. Thank you all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xiii
LIST OF PLATES xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvii
ABSTRAK xviii
ABSTRACT xx

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Objectives 6

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Pollination and pollinator 7
2.2 Pollinators in agricultural ecosystem 12
2.3 Possible causes of pollinator decline 15
2.4 Pollinator in Malaysian agricultural ecosystems 18
2.5 Effect of environmental factors (weather) on pollinators foraging
activities and abundances 20
2.6 Measuring pollinator performance 23
2.7 Host plants 25
2.7.1 Target crop - Mango (Mangifera indica Linnaeus) 25
2.7.2 Forage (wild plants) 27
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CHAPTER 3: SPECIES COMPOSITION OF ANTHOPHILES
(INSECT FLOWER VISITORS) ACCORDING TO THEIR
MOVEMENT AND BODY SIZE ON MANGO FLOWER PANICLES
IN HERBICIDE TREATED AND NON-TREATED PLOT
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Materials and Methods 34
3.2.1 Study Area 34
3.2.2 Mango cultivars 34
3.2.2.1 Chok Anan (MA 224) 34
3.2.2.2 Sala (MA164) 35
3.2.3 Experimental plots 37
3.2.4 Insects sampling 37
3.2.5 Statistical analyses 41
3.2.5.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango panicles 41
3.2.5.2 Temporal variations of anthophiles activities and
assemblages on mango flower panicles 41
3.2.5.3 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and
size 42
3.2.5.4 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application
on mango anthophiles compositions 42
3.3 Results 43
3.3.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango flower panicles 43
3.3.2 Temporal variations on anthophiles activities and assemblages
on mango flower panicles 53
3.3.3 Diurnal activity of anthophiles 58
3.3.4 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and size 61
3.3.5 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application on
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mango anthophiles compositions 64
3.3.5.1 Effect of herbicide application on composition of
anthophiles on Chok Anan panicles 64
3.3.5.2 Effect of herbicide application on composition of
anthophiles on Sala panicles 70
3.4 Discussion 75
3.4.1 Composition of anthophiles on mango flower panicles 75
3.4.2 Seasonal and diurnal activities of anthophiles on mango flower
panicles 80
3.4.3 Distribution of anthophiles according to their habit and size 84
3.4.4 Effect of herbicide gluphosinate-ammonium application on
mango anthophiles compositions 87

CHAPTER 4: INSECT-WEED INTERACTION AND ITS
IMPLICATION ON SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF INSECTS
AND WEEDS IN A MANGO ORCHARD
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Materials and Methods 94
4.2.1 Study area 94
4.2.2 Insects and weed collection 94
4.2.3 Statistical analyses 95
4.3 Results 97
4.3.1 Insects collected on weeds 97
4.3.1.1 Temporal and seasonal variations of insects’
abundances and diversity 99
4.3.2 Weed species 110
4.3.2.1 Temporal and seasonal variation of weed species 112
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4.3.3 Weeds as a determinant of insect abundance in mango orchard 115
4.4 Discussion 119
4.4.1 Insect population on weeds 119
4.4.2 Weed species 125
4.4.3 Weeds as a determinant of insect abundance in mango orchard 128

CHAPTER 5: ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON WEEDS AND
INSECTS POPULATIONS IN MANAGED ORCHARD
5.1 Introduction 132
5.2 Materials and Methods 135
5.2.1 Study Area 135
5.2.2 Measurement of climatic parameters (humidity, air temperature,
wind speed and light intensity) 135
5.2.3 Evaluation on effects of environmental factors on weeds and
insect population 136
5.2.4 Statistical analyses 136
5.3 Results 138
5.3.1 Seasonal variation of environmental parameters (relative
humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity) in mango
orchard 138
5.3.2 Temporal variation of environmental parameters; humidity, air
temperature, wind speed and light intensity during mango flowering
season 140
5.3.1.1 Year 2013 (12 – 28 February 2013) 140
5.3.1.2 Year 2014 (28 January 2014 to 7 March 2014) 142
5.3.3 Effect of environmental parameters (relative humidity,
temperature, wind speed and light intensity) on availability of weeds
species and on insects population 144
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5.3.3.1 Effect of environmental parameters on weeds
availability in the orchard 144
5.3.3.2 Effect of environmental parameters on insects
distribution on weeds 146
5.3.3.3 Effect of environmental parameters on anthophiles
abundance on mango flowers 148
5.4 Discussion 157
5.5.1 Seasonal variation of environmental parameters (relative
humidity, air temperature, wind speed and light intensity) in mango
orchard 157
5.4.2 Temporal variation of environmental parameters; humidity, air
temperature, wind speed and light intensity during mango flowering
season 158
5.4.3 Effect of environmental parameters (relative humidity,
temperature, wind speed and light intensity) on availability of weeds 162
species and on insects population

CHAPTER 6: POLLINATION SERVICES OF MANGO FLOWER
POLLINATORS
6.1 Introduction 167
6.2 Materials and Methods 170
6.2.1. Study Area 170
6.2.2 Assessment of pollinator performance 170
6.2.1.1 Pollination treatments 172
6.2.1.2 Estimation of hermaphrodite flowers on a flower panicle 174
6.2.3 Assessing pollinator’s contribution to plant reproductive success 174
6.2.3.1 Pollinator visitation rate 174
6.2.3.2 Pollen carrying capacity by pollinators 175
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6.2.3.3 Pollen atlas 175
6.2.3.4 Estimation of pollen grains 176
6.2.3 Statistical analyses 177
6.3 Results 179
6.3.1 Role of pollinators in mango fruit set 179
6.3.2 Visitation frequency 182
6.3.2 Pollinator behavior 182
6.3.3 Deposition of pollen grains as estimator of pollinator
effectiveness 184
6.3.4 Influence of body size of pollinators on pollen carrying capacity 189
6.4 Discussion 192
6.4.1 Role of pollinators in mango fruit set 192
6.4.2 Visitation frequency 195
6.4.3 Deposition of pollen grains as estimator of pollen effectiveness 196
6.4.4 Influenced of body size of pollinator on pollen carrying
capacities 199

CHAPTER 7: GENERAL CONCLUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATION 200

REFERENCES 205
APPENDIX
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS

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LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 3.1 Composition of anthophiles collected on mango panicles during
2 flowering seasons between 2013 and 2014. 46
Table 3.2a List of beneficial insects (pollinator, predator and parasitoid)
genera visiting flower panicles of mango cultivars; Chok Anan
and Sala. 47
Table 3.2b List of phytophagous insects (genera) visiting flower panicles
of mango cultivars; Chok Anan and Sala. 50
Table 3.3 Abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) and range of families
and order of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and Sala
flower panicles during two flowering seasons between 2013
and 2014. 53
Table 3.4 Abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) and range of families
and orders of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and Sala
flower panicles during two flowering seasons. 55
Table 3.5 Dominant genera of anthophiles (attributed to their ecological
function) collected on Chok Anan and Sala flower panicles
during sampling occasion of two mango flowering seasons
between 2013 and 2014. 57
Table 3.6 Hourly abundance and diversity (Mean ± SE) of genera,
families and orders of anthophiles collected on Chok Anan and
Sala flower panicles. 59
Table 3.7a List of common beneficial insects (pollinator, predator and
parasitoid) genera (≥ 10 individuals collected) according to
their habit (flying or crawling) and body size (small < 8 mm ≤
large) on mango panicles during the study. 62
Table 3.7b List of common insect pests (≥ 10 individuals collected)
according to their habit (flying or crawling) and body size
(small < 8 mm ≤ large) on mango panicles during the study. 63
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