How Languages Are Learned (Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers)

242 Pages·2006·15 MB·English

by  Patsy M. Lightbown

Also published in
Oxford Handbooks for Language Teachers
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How Languages
are Learned
Third edition
Patsy M Lightbown and Nina Spada
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ISBN: 978 0194Z2Z46
Printed in China
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements x1
Preface to the third edition xw
Introduction xv
1 Language learning in early childhood 1
The first three years: Milestones and developmental sequences 1
Grammatical morphemes 3
Negation 4
Questions 5
The pre-school years 7
The school years 8
Explaining first language acquisition 10
The behaviourist perspective: Say what I say 10
The innatist perspective: It's all in your mind 15
lnreractionist/developmental perspectives: Learning from
inside and out 19
Language disorders and delays 24
Childhood bilingualism 25
Summary 27
2 Explaining second language learning 29
Contexts for language learning 29
Learner characteristics 30
Learning conditions 32
Behaviourism 34
Second language applications: Mimicry and memorization 34
The innatist perspective: Universal Grammar 35
Second language applications: Krashen's 'monitor model' 36
Current psychological theories: The cognitivist/developmental
perspecuve 38
Information processing 39
Connectionism 41
The competition model 42
Second language applications: Interacting, noticing,
and processing 43
The sociocultural perspective 47
Second language applications: Learning by talking 47
Theory into practice 49
V111 Contents
3 Individual differences in second language learning 53
Who is a 'good language learner'? 54
Research on learner characteristics 54
Inrelligence 57
Aptitude 57
Learning styles 59
Personality 60
Motivation and auirudes 63
Identity and ethnic group affiliation 65
Learner beliefs 66
Age of acquisition and the Critical Period Hypothesis 67
Summary 74
4 Learner language 77
Studying the language ofs econd language learners 77
Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and inrerlanguage 78
Developmenral sequences 82
Grammatical morphemes 83
Negation 85
Questions 86
Possessive determiners 88
Relative clauses 90
Reference to past 91
Movemenr through developmenral sequences 92
More about first language influence 93
Vocabulary 96
Pragmatics 100
Phonology 104
5 Observing learning and teaching in the second language
classroom 109
Natural and instructional settings 109
Observation schemes 114
Classroom comparisons: Teacher-srudenr inreractions 115
Classroom comparisons: Studenr-srudenr interactions 121
Corrective feedback in the classroom 125
Questions in the classroom 130
Ethnography 133
Summary 135
6 Second language learning in the classroom 137
Six proposals for classroom teaching 137
1 Get it right from the beginning 138
2 Justlisten ... and read 143
Contents
lX
3 Let's talk ISO
4 Twoforone ISS
S Teach what is teachable 160
6 Get it right in the end 16S
The implications of classroom research for teaching 176
Summary 179
7 Popular ideas about language learning revisited I83
Glossary 19S
Bibliography 207
Index 229
INTRODUCTION
When new foreign language reaching methods and textbooks are inrro
duced, rhey are ofren said ro be based on rhe latest research in psychology,
linguistics, or pedagogy. Teachers are tald rhat rhey will be more effective
than rhose rhat have gone before. In many cases, the new approaches are
prescribed for immediate implementation in a school or region. Sometimes,
the new materials come with opportunities for extensive training in their
implementation. Sometimes, rhey are simply ordered and distributed tO
reachers who have to do their best tO use them effectively.
Teachers have seen many different approaches over the past fifry years. One
approach requires students to learn rules of grammar and lists of vocabulary
to use in translating literary texts. Another emphasizes the value of having
students imitate and practise a set of correct sentences and memorize entire
dialogues. Yet another stresses the importance of encouraging 'natural' com
munication between students as they engage co-operatively in tasks or
projects while using the new language. In some classrooms, the second
language is used as the medium to reach subject matter, with the assumption
that the language itself will be learned incidentally as students focus on the
academic content.
How are teachers tO evaluate the potential effectiveness of new methods? To
be sure, the most important influence on teachers' decisions is their own
experience with previous successes or disappointments, as well as their
understanding of the needs and abilities of their students. We believe that
ideas drawn from research and theory in second language acquisition are also
valuable in helping teachers evaluate claims made by proponents of various
language reaching methods. The goal of this book is to introduce reachers
both novice and experienced-to some of the language acquisition research
char may help them not only to evaluate existing textbooks and materials but
also to adapt them in ways that are more consistent with our understanding
of how languages are learned.
The book begins with a chapter on language learning in early childhood.
This background is important because both second language research and
second language teaching have been influenced by changes in our under
standing of how children acquire their first language. In fact, one significant
research finding concerns the similarities between first and second language
acquisition.
Introduction
XVI
In Chapter 2, several theories that have been advanced to explain second
language learning are presented and discussed. In Chapter 3, we turn our
attention to how individual learner characteristics may affect success. In
Chapter 4, we look at second language learners' developing knowledge and
their ability to use that knowledge. Chapter 5 begins with a comparison of
natural and instructional environments for second language learning. We
then examine some different ways in which classroom researchers have
observed and described teaching and learning practices in second language
classrooms.
In Chapter 6, we examine some of the proposals that have been made for
second language teaching. Examples of research related to each of the
proposals are presented, leading to a discussion of the evidence available for
assessing their effectiveness. The chapter ends with a discussion of what
research findings suggest about the most effective ways to teach and learn a
second language in the classroom.
A Glossary provides a quick reference for a number of terms that may be new
or have specific technical meanings in the context of language acquisition
research. Glossary words are shown in small capital letters where they first
appear in the text. For readers who would like to find out more, a list of
suggestions for further reading is included at the end of each chapter. The
Bibliography provides full reference information for the suggested readings
and all the works that are referred to in the text.
We have tried to present the information in a way that does not assume that
readers are already familiar with research methods or theoretical issues in
second language learning. Examples and case studies are included
throughout the book to illustrate the research ideas. Many of the examples
are taken from second language classrooms. We have included a number of
opportunities for readers to practise some of the techniques of observation
and analysis used in the research that we review in this book.
Before we begin ...
It is probably true, as some have claimed, that most of us teach as we were
taught or in a way that matches our ideas and preferences about how we
learn. Take a moment to reflect on your views about how languages are
learned and what you think this means about how they should be taught.
The statements on the following pages summarize some popular views about
language learning and teaching. Think about whether you agree or disagree
with each opinion. Keep these statements and your reactions to them in
mind as you read about current research and theory in second language
learning. We will return to these opinions in Chapter 7.
Introduction xvu
Popular opinions about language learning and teaching
Indicate the extent to which you agree with each statement by marking an X at
the appropriate point on the line between 'strongly agree' and 'strongly
disagree'.
Languages are learned mainly through imitation.
strongly agree I I I I I strongly disagree
2 Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical
errors.
strongly agree strongly disagree
3 Highly intelligent people are good language learners.
strongly agree strongly disagree
4 The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation.
strongly agree strongly disagree
5 The earlier a second language is introduced in school programmes, the
greater the likelihood of success in learning.
strongly agree strongly disagree
6 Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from their first language.
strongly agree strongly disagree
7 The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading.
strongly agree strongly disagree
8 It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds
in the second language.
strongly agree strongly disagree
9 Once learners know roughly I0 00 words and the basic structure of a
language, they can easily participate in conversations with native speakers.
strongly agree strongly disagree
I 0 Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time, and learners
should practise examples of each one before going on to another.
strongly agree strongly disagree