History of Science in South Asia

25 Pages·2017·0.45 MB·English

by  Ilona Barbara Kędzia

History of Science in South Asia
Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inallregionsofSouthAsia
Special issue:
Transmutations: Rejuvenation, Longevity, and
Immortality Practices in South and Inner Asia
Edited by Dagmar Wujastyk, Suzanne Newcombe,
and Christèle Barois
Mastering Deathlessness: Some Remarks on
Kaṟpam Preparations in the Medico-Alchemical
Literature of the Tamil Siddhas
IlonaBarbaraKędzia
JagiellonianUniversity
MLAstylecitationform: IlonaBarbaraKędzia. “MasteringDeathlessness: SomeRemarksonKaṟpamPre-
parationsintheMedico-AlchemicalLiteratureoftheTamilSiddhas.” HistoryofScienceinSouthAsia, 5.2
(2017):121–142. doi:10.18732/hssa.v5i2.16.
Onlineversionavailableat:http://hssa-journal.org
HISTORYOFSCIENCEINSOUTHASIA
Ajournalforthehistoryofallformsofscientificthoughtandaction,ancientandmodern,inall
regionsofSouthAsia,publishedonlineathttp://hssa-journal.org
ISSN2369-775X
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Mastering Deathlessness: Some Remarks on
Kaṟpam Preparations in the Medico-Alchemical
Literature of the Tamil Siddhas
IlonaBarbaraKędzia
JagiellonianUniversity
This paper aims at presenting remarks about the practices oriented towards
rejuvenation, longevity and even immortality described in Tamil Siddha
medico-alchemicalliterature.1 Thosemedico-alchemicalpracticesrelatemainly
to the use of certain substances and preparations for internal and external ap-
plicationcalledkaṟpam.2 Thisessaydescribesandexminesseveralselectedsub-
stances and procedures, such as the use of black herbs (karumūlikai), the ”triple
salt” (muppu), the ”tied salt” (kaṭṭuppu), mercury (iracam) and urine (amuri) re-
lated to kaṟpam therapy, along with the effects ascribed to the kaṟpam prepara-
tionsinTamilSiddhaliterature. Asobservedintheexaminedpassages,kaṟpam
therapies seem to be closely connected with the discipline of yoga in medico-
alchemicaltexts. Theaffinitybetweenthepurposeofmedico-alchemicalprepar-
ationsontheoneside,andofyogicpracticesontheother,suchasthestabilisation
andpreservationofthephysicalbody, aswellasthesynergyofthemethodsof
bothdisciplinesstatedbythemedico-alchemicalTamilSiddhaliteraturesuggest
acloserelationbetweenSiddhamedicine,alchemyandyoga.
The chronology of Tamil Siddha medico-alchemical literature remains un-
certain,duetothelackofcriticalandcomprehensivestudiesdonesofar. Often
scholarsdatetextsthataretraditionallyacceptedasauthoritativeworksofTamil
1 The medico-alchemical stream of Tamil medical Tamil Siddha literature see, e.g.,
Siddhaliteratureisoneofthefewcategories Buck 1976; Venkatraman 1990; Zvelebil
ofSiddhatextsrecognizedbyscholars. On 1993;Meenakshi1996.
the classification of the Tamil Siddhas and 2 ThetermkaṟpamistheTamilizedversion
theirliteraturesee,e.g.,Venkatraman1990; of the Sanskrit word kalpa, ”proceed-
Ganapathy 1993:22–24; Zvelebil 1993:17– ing”, ”rule”, ”treatment”, ”medicinal
19, 2003:19–20. On the content of non- compound.”
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
122 mastering deathlessness
Siddhamedico-alchemicalliteraturetotheperiodstartingfromthe15th–16thcen-
tury onwards. However, the material contained in them most probably derives
fromearliercenturies.3 Atthesametime,itisalsoprobablethatthetextsinclude
large interpolations of recent origin. It is estimated that the number of Tamil
Siddha medico-alchemical texts encompasses hundreds of works preserved on
palm-leaf manuscripts, only some of which have been printed so far. The texts
arescatteredandunorganizedanditisassumedthatthevastamountofmanu-
scriptsstillremainsinprivatehands.4
1. SOURCES
ThisessayisbasedonthereadingofselectedTamilSiddhamedico-alchemical
texts. ThetextmostwidelycitedhereisthePōkarKaṟpaviti(PKV)5bySiddha
Pōkar.6 Itisalmostentirelydedicatedtoprescriptionsfordrugscalledkaṟpam. It
consistsof342stanzasdividedintoninety-foursmallsubsections,eachofwhich
deals with a particular topic, often with a particular prescription. The text in
majorpartcontains practicalrecipesforpreparationswithherbal, animal, min-
eral and metallic ingredients. Prescriptions usually provide lists of ingredients
and a general description for the method of preparation, some of them also list
the diseases against which the preparation can be used, as well as other effects
3 See, e.g., Scharfe 1999:609–612; Weiss 6 Inscholarlypublicationsothertranscrip-
2009:48–50;Zysk2013:182–183. tions of the Tamil name ”Pōkar” are also
4 See Venkatraman 1990:15; Zvelebil used,suchas”Pōgar”,”Bōgar”or”Bhōgar.”
2003:139. Recently,aprojectentitled”Con- ”Pōkar” is a Tamil name which derives
servation,DocumentationandPreservation fromtheSanskritnounbhoga,”enjoyment”,
of the Knowledge of Siddha Medicine” ”eating”,”pleasure”,”wealth.”TheSiddha
headed by Brigitte Sébastia and supported calledPōkar,consideredtobetheauthorof
by the British Library, was carried out at thetext,isahighly-esteemedfigureamong
theFrenchInstituteofPondicherry(IFP)in traditional Siddha practitioners. However,
order to preserve, catalogue and digitise it is possible that among Tamil Siddhas
extant Siddha manuscripts. One of the there were several authors with the name
aimsoftheprojectwastoputthedigitised ”Pōkar” (see Venkatraman 1990:65). The
manuscripts online on the website of the most famous one probably could be re-
British Library (see the project website, gardedtheauthorofthemonumentalwork
Sébastia2015–2017). Captakāṇṭam (”Seven Chapters”), in which
5 Ihaveusedtheeditionofthetextwiththe marvellous,andsometimesphantasmagor-
commentary edited by Citta maruttuva il- ical,journeysundertakenbytheauthorwith
akkiya ārāycci āvaṇattuṟai, citta maruttuva theuseofmercurialpillsaredescribed. On
maiya ārāycci nilaiyam in Chennai on the the biography and works of Siddha Pōkar
basis of the palm leaf manuscripts collec- see,e.g.,Ganapathy2003;Little2006;Nata-
tedattheMaharajaSerfoji’sSaraswatiMa- rajan2009;Kędzia2017.
halLibraryinThanjavur.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
ilona barbara kędzia 123
of the drugs. In this essay, I also refer to the works of other Siddhas that elab-
orate on the subjects relevant for the present study that are not discussed ad-
equatelyin the text of Pōkar. Those texts include twoworks ascribed toSiddha
Akastiyar,7 namely the Kuru Nūl Muppu 50 (KNM), consisting of 49 stanzas,
and the Kaṟpa Muppu Kuru Nūl 100 (KMKN), consisting of 103 stanzas. Both
texts deal mostly with ”triple salt” (muppu), and they provide recipes for some
kaṟpam preparations as well. Yet another Siddha whose works have been used
forthepresentresearchisYākōpualiasIrāmatēvar,8theprolificauthorofatleast
seventeen works,9 which are highly esteemed and used as manuals by contem-
porary Siddha doctors, especially with regard to metallic preparations.10 Cita-
7 Akastiyar is traditionally considered to originally called ”Irāmatēvar” in several
be the founder of the Tamil Siddha med- passages in his texts, and provides a story
icalsystem. Heisclaimedtobetheauthor about the origin of his family, which
of more than two hundred texts in Tamil belongstoalineageofwarriors. According
(see Zvelebil 1993:32). According to the to autobiographical accounts contained in
common view, he is credited with found- his texts, Irāmatēvar travelled to Mecca in
ing the first Sangam and with composing search of alchemical knowledge. There he
the first grammar of the Tamil Language convertedtoIslam,underwentcircumcision
(SivarajaPillai1930:36–38).However,ithas and received the Muslim name ”Yākōpu.”
beenindicatedbyT.P.Meenakshisundaran On the life of Yākōpu, see Natarajan 2004;
that the language of the medical writings Venkatraman1990:63–64;Kędzia2017.
of Akastiyar cannot be older than the fif- 9 Yākōpu is credited with seventeen texts,
teenth century (T. P. Meenakshisundaran, claimedtobecomposedafterhisconversion
quoted by Zvelebil 2003:71). It is also to Islam. The list of his texts, provided by
highly dubious that a single person com- Ji. Irāmacāmik Kōṉ, the general publisher
posed all of the works ascribed to Akasti- of Yākōpu’s works, includes the follow-
yar. According to Zvelebil, in the medi- ing titles: Vaittiya Cintāmaṇi Eḻunūṟu, Kur-
evalandmodernTamiltradition,severalau- unūl Aimpatti Aintu, Cuṇṇakkāṇṭam Aṟun-
thorsofthesamename(withsomevariants, ūṟu, Cuṇṇam Munnūṟu, Centūra Cūsti[ram]
such as ”Agastya”, ”Akattiyaṉ”, ”Akatti- Nūṟṟu Aimpatu, Cūstiram Aimpatti Aintu,
yar”) have been merged into one single Vakārak Kaḷaṅku Munnūṟu, Pañcamittiram
personagecreditedwithsomesupernatural Munnūṟu, Taṇṭakam Nūṟṟu Pattu, Cūstiram
characteristics(seeZvelebil1992:235–261.). AimpattiAintu,IṭaipākamPatiṉāṟu,Ceypākam
Thename”Akastiyar”isaTamilversionof Patiṉāṟu, Vaitya Vātacūstiram Nāṉūṟu, Vait-
Sanskrit”Agastya”,thenameoftherevered tiyamMunnūṟu. Tothislistthetextentitled
Vedic sage, whose figure is well attested Kallāṭam, traditionally ascribed to Yākōpu,
in the Sanskrit literature, starting from the isalsoadded(seeVaiCin:2). Moreover,be-
Ṛgveda. See ”Agastya” in Macdonell and fore his travel to Mecca, Irāmatēvar may
Keith1912:6–7. havealsocomposedafewtexts,forexample
8 Siddha Yākōpu probably lived between CivayōkamIrunūṟu(seeNatarajan2004:258).
the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries 10 PersonalcommunicationfromDrKavia-
(Natarajan 2004:257). However, Venkat- rasuBalakrishnan,traditionalSiddhaprac-
ramanplaceshisworksinthelaterperiod, titioner. According to Dr Balakrishnan,
i.e., between the seventeenth and the Yākōpu’sworksaretheprominentworkson
eighteenthcentury(Venkatraman1990:63). alchemyoftheTamilSiddhatradition.
The author introduces himself as a person
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
124 mastering deathlessness
tions from the Cuṇṇakkaṇṭam 600 (CuṇKaṇ),11 consisting of 605 stanzas, which
providemanyrecipesrelatedtocuṇṇam12 preparations,aswellasfromtheVait-
tiya Kallāṭam (VK),13 which is especially interesting with regard to its language
as it contains manifold riddles, were the most relevant for the present paper.
The Ñāṉakaṟpam 222 (ÑK) of Siddha Pulastiyar has also been referred to.14 As
indicated by the title, the text consists of 222 stanzas, and concerns subjects re-
latedtomedicine,alchemyandyoga. Iwillalsorefertoanimportantoldertext
thatisusuallynotincludedamongthemedico-alchemicalliteratureoftheTamil
Siddhas,namelytheTirumantirambyTirumūlar15 (twelfthcentury)16. TheTiru-
mantiramis often regarded as a foundational text of Tamil Siddha literature, in-
cludingthemedico-alchemicalstream. Thetextconsistsofninechapterscalled
tantiramthatcompriseover3000verses,anditdealswithanumberofsubjects,
primarilyyogaandŚaivaphilosophy.
The content of the literature of the medico-alchemical stream of the Tamil
Siddha tradition covers a wide spectrum of subjects, including medicine, al-
chemy,yoga,magic,etc. Thenumberandchoiceofthemescanvarysignificantly
fromonetexttoanother. Thetextsoftenhavetheformofpracticalmanuals,es-
peciallyforcertainmedicalandalchemicalpreparations. However,theprescrip-
tions are frequently not provided with details necessary for the procedure and
11 Ihaveusedtheprintededitionprovided of the Tirumantiram. According to the
withthemoderncommentary. tale, the author was a yogi who travelled
12 cuṇṇam/cuṉṉamisavarietyofdrugpre- to South India from the north. On his
paredfrommetals,whiteincolourandpos- way, the yogi saw a herd of cows weeping
sessingqualitiessimilartocalcium. Itisre- over the body of a cowherd called Mūlan,
garded as very potent. It is obtained with who had died suddenly from a snake
theuseofceyanīr(apungentliquidprepared bite. The yogi secured his own body in a
byexposingthemixtureofmineralstonight safe place and, having migrated into the
dew),fuller’searthandacids.Seecuṉṉamin corpse of the deceased cowherd, he led
SambasivamPillai1931–1994. the cows to their home. Remaining in the
13 The Vaittiya Kallāṭam consists of three cowherd’s body, the yogi attained ”real
parts, dealingwithmedicine, alchemyand knowledge”(meyñāṉam). Thenhesatdown
yoga,respectively. Thefirstandthelongest in meditation for three thousand years,
medical part, which has been used for composingthethreethousandversesofthe
the present study, contains 53 stanzas that Tirumantiram at the rate of one verse per
provide recipes for medical preparations year.SeeVenkatraman1990:46–47.
againstvariousdiseases, andisaccompan- 16 The date of the Tirumantiram remains
iedbyanexplanatorycommentary. uncertain. However, as demonstrated by
14 In contrast to the above-mentioned Goodall on the grounds of the conceptual
Siddhas, no information about the life of content of the text, most probably it can-
Siddha Pulastiyar has been found in the notbeearlierthanthetwelfthcentury. See
availablesources. Goodall 1998:xxxvii-xxxix, n.85; Goodall
15 The twelfth-century text Tiruttoṇṭar- 2000:213,n.27.
purāṇam recounts a story about the author
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
ilona barbara kędzia 125
aresometimeshardlyunderstandablewithoutacommentary,becauseofthepe-
culiaresotericlanguage,whichcontainscolloquialTamilforms,crypticsymbolic
expressions and ambiguous technical terms of the traditional lore. The use of
thesymbolicandequivocal”twilightlanguage”(Tamil: cūṉiya-campāṣaṉai,”dis-
course on the void”) is considered to be a common feature of the Siddha texts,
alsobeyondtheTamiltradition. Suchlanguage,amongotherpossiblepurposes,
may serve to protect the great truths of the Siddha doctrine from profanation
byuninitiatedpersons. Throughtheuseofcolloquialexpressions,itmayallow
persons outside the literary elite to access Siddha teachings. Symbolic expres-
sions may also be used to convey mystical experiences, expression of which re-
mainsbeyondtheabilitiesofordinarylanguage.17 Interestingly,inTamilSiddha
medico-alchemicalliterature,evensimplerecipesagainstcommondiseasesmay
be intentionally presented in a highly perplexing way. In some texts, informa-
tionnecessaryforthepreparation,suchasnamesofcrucialingredients, instru-
ments or doses, have been hidden in rebuses and riddles, the solving of which
isfrequentlyimpossiblewithoutacommentary. Theriddlesareoftenbasedon
word-playwiththeuseofsynonymouswords. Forexample,thesolutionofthe
riddle ”join the mother to the beginning of lead”18 is ”clove” (ilavaṅkam), be-
causewhenthesynonymouswordsoftheword”mother”(avvai),i.e.,ila,19isad-
dedtothebeginningoftheword”lead”(vaṅkam), thewordilavaṅkam(”clove”)
will be obtained. Another example is based on the simily between Tamil let-
ters and numbers: ”add the mother (tāy) to the eighty (eṇpatu)”.20 In the Tamil
system of writing, the numerals ”8” and ”0” of number ”80” have a very sim-
ilar shape to the letters ”a” and ”ya.” If we add yet another synonymous word
for”mother”,i.e.,kāntai(”wife”,”woman”)tothecluster”a+ya”,weobtainthe
wordayakkāntai,whichisalmostidenticalwithayakkāntam,i.e.,theTamilSiddha
termforlodestone.21 Theuseofsuchanenigmaticlanguageisalsofoundineso-
tericyogictextswhichcontainpassagesconcerningspiritualpracticesaimedat
obtaining liberation. One remarkable example of such esoteric passages is the
wholeseventeenthchapteroftheninthsection(tantiram)oftheTirumantiramen-
titled cūṉiya-campāṣaṉai (”Discourse on the void”) or maṟaiporuṭ kūṟṟu (”Speech
17 SeeGanapathy2004: 3–6. Tamilnumeralsandthelettersismorecom-
18 VK:32:3 […]vaṅkamuta lavvaic cērttuc monintheTamilSiddhatradition,alsobey-
[…]. ondthemedico-alchemicalstream. Onere-
19 The word used in ancient times in ad- markable example is number ”82” which
dressingawomaninafamiliarmanner.See has an important meaning for the Tamil
ilaintheUniversityofMadras’sTamilLex- Siddhars. Numbers”8”and”2”lookvery
icon(1924–1936). similartoTamilletters”a”and”u”, sothe
20 VK:49:[…]eṇpatoṭutāyaicērttu[…] number ”82” is used to denote the sacred
21 This method of encoding, based on the syllable”aum.”
similarity between the visual form of the
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
126 mastering deathlessness
onsecretsense”). Thechapterconsistsofseventystanzascomposedinsymbolic
and highly ambiguous language and it concerns yogic practices which aim at
liberation.22
Theviewthatrejuvenationandlonglifecanbeachievedthroughcertainprac-
ticesiswell-attestedinTamilSiddhamedico-alchemicalliterature. Moreover,in
some texts it is also suggested that some preparations and therapies may even
bestowimmortality.23 Nonetheless,theconceptofimmortalityisnotelaborated
in the consulted medico-alchemical texts. From the context, it may be inferred
that immortality, as conceived by the medico-alchemical Siddha writers, is re-
latedtothepreservationofaprosperous,youthfulandhandsomephysicalbody,
whichisoftensuggestedtobetheresultoftheapplicationofthedescribedpre-
parations. In the consulted texts, it is not explicitly stated what the aim of the
attainmentofsuchabodyis. Thepursuitofanimmortalbodyfoundinmedico-
alchemicaltextsmayindicatealinkbetweenyogaandmedicinewithintheTamil
Siddhatradition. Bodilyimmortalityandthepreservationofyouthfulnessarere-
peatedlystatedtobearesultofyogicpracticesintheTirumantiram. Theauthor
claims that both the body and the soul are equally important and interdepend-
ent entities, and the body is considered to be indispensable for achieving ”true
knowledge” (meyñāṉam) leading to liberation.24 This view, although not expli-
citly stated in medico-alchemical texts, may underlie the practices described in
themaswell.
2. RECIPES FOR REJUVENATION, LONGEVITY AND
IMMORTALITY
Inmedico-alchemicalliterature,itiskaṟpamtherapythatiswidelyrecommen-
dedtoachieverejuvenation,longevityandthepowertoremaindeathless:
Ihavetold[you]aboutthekaṟpampreparationswhichhavethepower
to[keepaperson]alivewithoutdying.25
22 TM:2826–2895. tectingthebody”.
23 Seee.g.,VK:53;PKV:328. uṭampāraḻiyiluyirāraḻivar
24 TM:704–705 ”If the owner of a body tiṭampaṭameyn￿āṉan￿cēravumāṭṭār
perishes,thentheownerofthesoulwillper- uṭampaivaḷarkkumupāyamaṟintē
ish[too].Hewillnotachieverealknowledge uṭampaivaḷarttēṉuyirvaḷarttēṉē
withcertainty. Havinglearntthemeansfor uṭampiṉaimuṉṉamiḻukkeṉṟiruntēṉ
cultivating the body, I have cultivated the uṭampiṉukkuḷḷēyuṟuporuḷkaṇṭēṉ
body and [therefore] indeed I have cultiv- uṭampuḷēuttamaṉkōyilkoṇṭāṉeṉṟu
ated[my]soul. PreviouslyIconsideredthe uṭampiṉaiyāṉiruntōmpukiṉṟēṉē.
bodytobeinferior[tothesoul]. [Then]in 25 PKV:328:1 māḷātē irukkavallō kaṟpañ
the body I saw the wealth. Knowing that coṉṉēṉ
Godset[his]templeinthisbody,Iampro-
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
ilona barbara kędzia 127
Recipes for kaṟpam drugs are found in numerous medico-alchemical texts.
However,asindicatedbyA.ShanmugaVelan,noneofthetextspresentsthecom-
pletelineofthetreatment.26 Somepassagessuggestthatcertainherbsalonemay
serveasapowerfulkaṟpam.27 Siddhatextsfrequentlymentionextraordinaryre-
juvenating powers of kaṟpam plants. It is often repeated that kaṟpam herbs pos-
sessnotonlyrejuvenatingandhealingproperties,butthattheyarealsopower-
ful catalysts in alchemical operations, effecting ”binding” (kaṭṭu) operations on
manymetals.28 Pōkarenumeratesforty-fivekaṟpamherbsthatarecreditedwith
alchemicalpowers,includingeffectingkaṭṭuonsixty-foursubstances.29 Itisalso
said that those herbs provide support for yogic practices, bestow rejuvenation
andimmortalityuponthehumanbody,andallowonetowalkinthesky.30
Themajorityofkaṟpampreparationsarerecommendedtobetakeninternally.
However,therearealsopreparationsprescribedtobeappliedexternally,forex-
ample as an anal ointment, eye ointment, or in the bath.31 The range of kaṟpam
recipesencompassbothverysimplepreparations32aswellasextremelycomplic-
atedprescriptions,fulfilmentofwhichrequiresrepeatedoperationswiththeuse
of special apparatuses and numerous ingredients from plant, animal, mineral
andmetalkingdoms.
26 SeeVelan1992:55–56. ofthe25or26alchemical”bonds”(bandha).
27 For example, passage PKV:204–6 Eachofthebondsmayalsobeusedinmedi-
ascribescertainherbstoparticularSiddhas. cine(seeWhite1996:266–67).
It states that the Siddhas have lived for 29 PKV:190–94.
aeons only due to the application of those 30 InIndianalchemicaltraditions,theabil-
herbs. itytowalkintheskyisregardedasaskillac-
28 Kaṭṭu(”bond”)isanimportantalchem- quiredbythealchemistduetothespecially
icaloperation,frequentlymentionedinthe preparedmercurialpillkeptinthemouth.
texts. The operation aims at consolidating See White 1996:211–12. Stories about the
the substances and rendering them heat- Siddhastravellingaroundtheworlddueto
resistant (see kaṭṭu in Sambasivam Pillai thepowersofmercurialpillsarealsofound
1931–1994).Substancessubjectedtokaṭṭuof- inTamilSiddhaliterature,seee.g. worksof
tenmentionedinPōkar’stextaremercury, SiddhaYākōpu,suchasVāVai:4,Cuṇ:153–
metals,saltandsulphur. Kaṭṭuseemstobe 156,CuṇKaṇ:287.
the art of rendering the substances stable, 31 PKV:8;9–10;5.
dense,resistantandsolid.Materialsrecom- 32 For example, miḷaku kaṟpam (black pep-
mendedtobeusedforeffectingthe”bond” per kaṟpam) consists of just one ingredient
onthesubstancesareusuallyherbalswhich (blackpepper). Initially5peppercornsper
arealsousedaskaṟpammedicines. Acoun- dayshouldbetakenwithurine. Everyfol-
terpartofkaṭṭucanalsobefoundinSanskrit lowingdaythedoseshouldbeincreasedby
alchemical literature. Among operations 5peppercornsuntilitreachestheamountof
aimedatperfectingmercury(saṃskāra)the 100peppercornsperday. Subsequently,the
operationof”binding”(bandhana)mercury dose should be reduced by 5 peppercorns
isalsolisted.Thegoaloftheoperationisthe eachday(seePKV:37).
fixationofthemercurywiththeuseofone
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142
128 mastering deathlessness
Themostcommonoperationinmetallickaṟpampreparationsdescribedinthe
textsseemstoberoastingthedruginthepuṭam,i.e.,acapsuleconstructedwith
thetwoidenticalearthenplates. Theusualsequenceofactionsinthepuṭamop-
eration starts with the repeated grinding of the metals in the mortar with the
juice of certain kaṟpam herbs, the choice of which depends on the metal used.
Ingredientsshouldsubsequentlybeputinsidethecapsule,afterwhichaspecial
lute, usually made with herbal leaves, is applied. Then, the capsule should be
placedintoafireofadeterminednumberofburningcowdungpattiesandroas-
ted. Usually, the whole sequence of the above-mentioned operations should be
repeated several times. The products of metal processing are named after the
form they obtain at the end of the puṭam operation, the most common drugs
being: centūram,33 paṟpam34 and cuṉṉam/cuṇṇam.35 All three preparations are
consideredtobehighlyassimilablemetalliccompounds.
AmongmaterialsusedbytheSiddhasinkaṟpamtherapy,someitemsbelong-
ingtoherbal,animal,mineralandmetaldomainsarecreditedwithparticularly
powerfulrejuvenatingandlifeprolongingproperties:
black herbs
Among herbal recipes, Pōkar mentions certain kaṟpam preparations which re-
quire the use of black varieties (karumūlikai) of some common medical plants,
for example karantai (fragrant basil) or nelli (amla).36 Those plants are credited
withmedicalpropertiesevenintheircommonform,butaccordingtotheSiddha,
their black variants possess particular rejuvenating powers. Pōkar provides in-
struction for cultivating such herbs.37 The preparation of a special soil appears
to be crucial for their cultivation. According to the text, one should fill half of
a box with a dark alluvium soil and tamp it down. The remaining volume of
the box should be packed with marking nuts (cēṅkoṭṭai). Then, the soil should
be watered for six months, if whole nuts were used, or for three months, if the
nutswerepreviouslyhalved. Whenthenutsdecompose,thesoilshouldbeleft
to dry. Next, on the soil prepared in the described way, one sows the seeds of
themedicalherbs. Whenthecropripens,thenewseedsshouldbecollectedand
thewholeoperationshouldberepeatedthreetimes. Pōkarclaimsthatthefourth
crop will be black in colour. The text states that cultivated black herbs rejuven-
atethebody,andremovewrinklesandgreyhair. Totesttheefficacyoftheblack
33 centūram – red calcined oxides. For 35 Seesupranote12.Cuṉṉammaylooksim-
the varieties of centūram type of drugs see ilartopaṟpam,butitisregardedasmorepo-
centūraminSambasivamPillai1931–1994. tent.SeecuṉṉaminSambasivamPillai1931–
34 paṟpam – calcined oxides, white in col- 1994.
our. Forthevarietiesofpaṟpamseepaṟpam 36 karantai:PKV:62–63,nelli:PKV:128.
inSambasivamPillai1931–1994. 37 PKV:198–203.
history of science in south asia 5.2 (2017) 121–142