History of Digital Games: Developments in Art, Design and Interaction

273 Pages·2017·5.99 MB·English

by  Andrew Williams

GAME DESIGN
H
History of Digital Games i
s
t
o
Developments in Art, Design, and Interaction
r
y

The growth of videogame design programs in higher education and explosion of o
amateur game development has created a need for a deeper understanding of game f
history that addresses not only “when,” but “how” and “why.” Andrew Williams takes
D
the first step in creating a comprehensive survey on the history of digital games
as commercial products and artistic forms in a textbook appropriate for university i
g
instruction. History of Digital Games adopts a unique approach and scope that
traces the interrelated concepts of game design, art and design of input devices from i
t
the beginnings of coin-operated amusement in the late 1800s to the independent a
games of unconventional creators in the present. Rooted in the concept of videogames l

as designed objects, Williams investigates the sources that inspired specific game
G
developers as well as establishing the historical, cultural, economic and technological
contexts that helped shape larger design trends. a
m
Key Features:
e
• Compiled from dozens of interviews with restorers of antique coin-operated
amusements, computer hackers at the dawn of digital games, past and s
current industry professionals and influential independent game developers
• Full-color images and game screenshots
• Interweaves discussion on arcade games, home console games and
computer games while highlighting the distinctions of each game context
• Designed for ease of reading with helpful headings and in-text explanation
of key terms W
• Links to online resources illia
m
About the author:
s
Andrew Williams, Ph.D., is an assistant professor of Art and Design History at the
University of Wisconsin-Stout in Menomonie, Wisconsin. He teaches a variety of
graduate and undergraduate courses on digital games, fine art and design history.
Williams also established and curated the vintage game collection of the Gaming
and Digital Innovation Lab at UW-Stout in addition to maintaining his own catalog of
games, game hardware and input devices.
159848
ISBN: 978-1-1388-8555-4
90000
9 781138885554
www.crcpress.com
AN A K PETERS BOOK
9781138885554_cover.indd 1 12/7/16 3:07 PM
History of Digital Games

History of Digital Games
Developments in Art, Design and Interaction
Andrew Williams
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
Version Date: 20170127
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-88555-4 (Paperback) 978-1-138-88553-0 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Williams, Andrew, 1981- author.
Title: History of digital games : developments in art, design and interaction
/ Andrew Williams.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : Taylor & Francis, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016035577| ISBN 9781138885554 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN
9781138885530 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Video games--Design--History. | Electronic
games--Design--History. | Video arcades--History. | Video art--History.
Classification: LCC GV1469.3 .W56 2017 | DDC 794.8--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016035577
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xiii
Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .xv
Chapter 1 — Mechanical and electromechanical arcade Games (1870–1979) . . . . 1
Arcade Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
The Beginnings of Coin-Operated Amusement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Automata and Coin-Op Working Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Coin-Op Competitive Testers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Coin-Op Viewers at the Turn of the Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
A Gathering of Games and Amusements at the Penny Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Sport-Based Games and the Roots of Digital Game Genres . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Early Developments in Pinball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
A New Emphasis on Art and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
The Prohibition of Pinball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Postwar Mechanical and Electromechanical Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Driving and Racing Games after World War II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21
Missile-Launching Games in Japan and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
v
vi Contents
Pinball as a Game of Skill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
The Sunset of Electromechanical Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Chapter 2 — Games as experiments (1912–1977) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Electronic Computers and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Early Games in Research and Scientific Demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Chess and Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Beyond Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Turing’s Imitation Game and Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Tennis for Two and the Beginning of Entertainment Applications for
Computer Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
The Hacker Ethic and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
The Spread and Modification of Spacewar! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .37
Computer Networks and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
The ARPAnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations and
Multiplayer Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Adapting Dungeons & Dragons to PLATO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43
Early 3D and Networked Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Into the Commercial Realm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Chapter 3 — early Commercialized Digital Games (1971–1977) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
New Technology in the Consumer Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Approaches to Commercialized Digital Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Monetizing Spacewar! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
The Magnavox Odyssey and Divided Game Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .55
Pong and Variations on Ball and Paddle Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Late Ball and Paddle Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Adapting Electromechanical Games to the Digital Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Racing Games in the Early Digital Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Early Variants of Maze and Shooting Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Dedicated Consoles in the Home and Signs of Trouble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Chapter 4 — the Golden age arcade (1978–1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Golden Age Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
Tendencies and New Concepts in the Golden Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Shooting and Shoot ’em Ups in the Golden Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Other Directions in Shooter Design, Input, and Theme . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Stronger Characters and Narrative in Arcade Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Contents vii
Laserdiscs, Narrative, and Gameplay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Eclectic Approaches to Arcade Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
The End of the Golden Age Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Chapter 5 — Cartridges and home Consoles (1976–1984) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The Second Generation of Home Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
Atari and the VCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92
Game Design for the VCS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
Changes at Atari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94
Competition in the Home Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
The Emergence of Third-Party Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
Mattel and Coleco Enter the Console Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
Beyond the Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Adding Content to Home Console Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
Altering Time in Home Console Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Adventure and Exploration in Console Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Resource Management Games on Home Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .106
Sports Games for the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
The North American Console Crash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .108
Other Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Fallout of the Crash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
Chapter 6 — home Computers (1977–1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
The Microcomputer Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
Computer Games of the Late 1970s and Early 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .114
From Text to Graphic Adventure Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
Early Computer Role-Playing Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120
Other Directions in CRPGs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
Flight and Vehicle Simulations on Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Visuals and Action-Adventure Games for Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .128
The Mouse and Computer Games of the Later 1980s and 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . .129
Later Role-Playing Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130
Developing the Point-and-Click Adventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
Management and Strategy Games in the Late 1980s and Early 1990s . . . .135
Synthesis and Development of the RTS Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137
Chapter 7 — Japan, 2D Game Design and the rebirth of Consoles
(1983–1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
Japanese Games and Game Companies in the Early 1980s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141
2D Game Design Trends after the Golden Age Arcade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
viii Contents
Pseudo-3D in Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
Side-Scrolling Action and the Beat ’em Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
The Head-to-Head Fighting Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .145
Western Responses to the Head-to-Head Fighting Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . .148
Japanese Companies Transition to the Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Stabilizing and Controlling the Console Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .151
Establishing Nintendo’s Franchises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
Super Mario Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .152
The Legend of Zelda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154
Computer Games and the JRPG on the Famicom/NES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157
Sega Joins the Console Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
16-Bit Consoles, Marketing, and Game Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159
New Contenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160
New Platformers for New Consoles and Intensified Competition . . . . . . . .161
Chapter 8 — early 3D and the Multimedia Boom (1989–1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Two Paths to Realism: Multimedia Imagery and Real-Time 3D . . . . . . . . . . . .165
CD-ROMs and Photo-Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Interactive Film and Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .166
Puzzle Games in the Era of Multimedia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Real-Time 3D and Spatial Realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Early Commercialized Virtual Reality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .171
Simulators in Arcades Spawn a 3D Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175
Adapting Home Consoles to a 3D Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177
Combining 2D Images with Real-Time 3D in PC Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
The Influence of id Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .180
The Triumph of Real-Time 3D in Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .184
Chapter 9 — Contemporary Game Design (1996–present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
New Hardware for Real-Time 3D Gaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185
3D Game Design in the Late 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
Platforming and Adventure Games in Full 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .186
First Person in Full 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189
Hybrid First-Person Shooter/Role-Playing Games at the Turn of the
Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Looking Glass Studios and Its Offshoots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193
Cinematic Perspectives at the Turn of the Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195
Games and Game Design in the New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Changes in the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198
Contents ix
New Consoles and the Maturing of Games in the 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Sega’s Exit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199
Microsoft’s Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200
The Proliferation of Open World Gameplay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
Reducing Load Times on Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
The Emergence of Casual and Mobile Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203
Digital Distribution in the 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .206
Casual Games and Digital Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208
Game Visuals and Gameplay Aesthetics in the 2000s and Beyond . . . . . .209
Realism in Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210
Film-Like Gameplay in the 2000s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .212
Criticism and Backlash against the Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
Chapter 10 — Independent Games (1997–present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The Scratchware Manifesto and Dimensions of “Indie” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215
The Early Independent Game Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Success with Shareware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216
Flash and 2D Freeware Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Flash and Struggles for Legitimacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .218
Japan’s Doujin Soft and Freeware Scene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
Freeware Experiments with Games and Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .223
The Mainstream Breakout of Independent Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226
Steam and Independent Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227
Console Manufacturers Pursue Independent Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .229
Success beyond “Games” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Creative Sandboxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .234
Narrative Exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .235
Meeting Challenges in the Contemporary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .237
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .243