Table Of ContentHANDBOOK OF THIN-FILM
DEPOSITION PROCESSES AND
TECHNIQUES
Principles, Methods, Equipment and
Applications
Second Edition
Edited by
Krishna Seshan
Intel Corporation
Santa Clara, California
NOYES PUBLICATIONS
WILLIAM ANDREW PUBLISHING
Norwich, New York, U.S.A.
Copyright © 2002 by Noyes Publications
No part of this book may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the Publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2001135178
ISBN: 0-8155-1442-5
Printed in the United States
Published in the United States of America by
Noyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing
13 Eaton Avenue
Norwich, NY 13815
1-800-932-7045
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Handbook of Thin-Film Deposition Processes and Techniques / [edited]
by Krishna Seshan. -- 2nd edition
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8155-1442-5
1. Thin film devices -- Design and construction -- Handbooks,
manuals, etc. I. Seshan, Krishna. II. Title.
TK7872.T55H36 2001135178
621.381'72--dc19 CIP
NOTICE
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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND PROCESS TECHNOLOGY SERIES
Series Editors
Gary E. McGuire, Microelectronics Center of North Carolina
Stephen M. Rossnagel, IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center
Rointan F. Bunshah, University of California, Los Angeles (1927–1999), founding editor
Electronic Materials and Process Technology
CHARACTERIZATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS, Volume 1: edited by Gary E.
McGuire
CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION FOR MICROELECTRONICS: by Arthur Sherman
CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION OF TUNGSTEN AND TUNGSTEN SILICIDES: by John E.
J. Schmitz
CHEMISTRY OF SUPERCONDUCTOR MATERIALS: edited by Terrell A. Vanderah
CONTACTS TO SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Leonard J. Brillson
DIAMOND CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION: by Huimin Liu and David S. Dandy
DIAMOND FILMS AND COATINGS: edited by Robert F. Davis
DIFFUSION PHENOMENA IN THIN FILMS AND MICROELECTRONIC MATERIALS: edited by
Devendra Gupta and Paul S. Ho
ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS: edited by John
McHardy and Frank Ludwig
ELECTRODEPOSITION: by Jack W. Dini
HANDBOOK OF CARBON, GRAPHITE, DIAMONDS AND FULLERENES: by Hugh O.
Pierson
HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION, Second Edition: by Hugh O. Pierson
HANDBOOK OF COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Paul H. Holloway and Gary
E. McGuire
HANDBOOK OF CONTAMINATION CONTROL IN MICROELECTRONICS: edited by Donald
L. Tolliver
HANDBOOK OF DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES FOR FILMS AND COATINGS, Second
Edition: edited by Rointan F. Bunshah
HANDBOOK OF HARD COATINGS: edited by Rointan F. Bunshah
HANDBOOK OF ION BEAM PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Jerome J. Cuomo,
Stephen M. Rossnagel, and Harold R. Kaufman
HANDBOOK OF MAGNETO-OPTICAL DATA RECORDING: edited by Terry McDaniel and
Randall H. Victora
HANDBOOK OF MULTILEVEL METALLIZATION FOR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS: edited by
Syd R. Wilson, Clarence J. Tracy, and John L. Freeman, Jr.
HANDBOOK OF PLASMA PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Stephen M. Rossnagel,
Jerome J. Cuomo, and William D. Westwood
HANDBOOK OF POLYMER COATINGS FOR ELECTRONICS, Second Edition: by James
Licari and Laura A. Hughes
HANDBOOK OF REFRACTORY CARBIDES AND NITRIDES: by Hugh O. Pierson
HANDBOOK OF SEMICONDUCTOR SILICON TECHNOLOGY: edited by William C. O’Mara,
Robert B. Herring, and Lee P. Hunt
v
vi Series
HANDBOOK OF SEMICONDUCTOR WAFER CLEANING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Werner
Kern
HANDBOOK OF SPUTTER DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGY: by Kiyotaka Wasa and Shigeru
Hayakawa
HANDBOOK OF THIN FILM DEPOSITION PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES, Second Edition:
edited by Krishna Seshan
HANDBOOK OF VACUUM ARC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: edited by Raymond L.
Boxman, Philip J. Martin, and David M. Sanders
HANDBOOK OF VLSI MICROLITHOGRAPHY, Second Edition: edited by John N. Helbert
HIGH DENSITY PLASMA SOURCES: edited by Oleg A. Popov
HYBRID MICROCIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK, Second Edition: by James J. Licari
and Leonard R. Enlow
IONIZED-CLUSTER BEAM DEPOSITION AND EPITAXY: by Toshinori Takagi
MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY: edited by Robin F. C. Farrow
NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS: edited by Carl. C. Koch
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND PROCESS TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK: edited by
Gary E. McGuire
ULTRA-FINE PARTICLES: edited by Chikara Hayashi, R. Ueda and A. Tasaki
WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Stephen J. Pearton
Related Titles
ADVANCED CERAMIC PROCESSING AND TECHNOLOGY, Volume 1:e dited by Jon G. P.
Binner
CEMENTED TUNGSTEN CARBIDES: by Gopal S. Upadhyaya
CERAMIC CUTTING TOOLS: edited by E. Dow Whitney
CERAMIC FILMS AND COATINGS: edited by John B. Wachtman and Richard A. Haber
CORROSION OF GLASS, CERAMICS AND CERAMIC SUPERCONDUCTORS: edited by
David E. Clark and Bruce K. Zoitos
FIBER REINFORCED CERAMIC COMPOSITES: edited by K. S. Mazdiyasni
FRICTION AND WEAR TRANSITIONS OF MATERIALS: by Peter J. Blau
HANDBOOK OF CERAMIC GRINDING AND POLISHING: edited by Ioan D. Marinescu, Hans
K. Tonshoff, and Ichiro Inasaki
HANDBOOK OF HYDROTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY: edited by K. Byrappa and Masahiro
Yoshimura
HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL REFRACTORIES TECHNOLOGY: by Stephen C. Carniglia
and Gordon L. Barna
MECHANICAL ALLOYING FOR FABRICATION OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
by M. Sherif El-Eskandarany
SHOCK WAVES FOR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS: edited by Lawrence E. Murr
SOL-GEL TECHNOLOGY FOR THIN FILMS, FIBERS, PREFORMS, ELECTRONICS AND
SPECIALTY SHAPES: edited by Lisa C. Klein
SOL-GEL SILICA: by Larry L. Hench
SPECIAL MELTING AND PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES: edited by G. K. Bhat
SUPERCRITICAL FLUID CLEANING: edited by John McHardy and Samuel P. Sawan
Dedications
To the memory of George Narita (1928–2001):
kind, patient, wise, nurturing editor, and good friend.
To the memory of my beloved parents,
Kalpakam and P. K. Seshan.
Contributors
Suresh Bhat Martin L. Hammond
Intel Corporation, Tetron/Gemini Systems
Santa Clara, CA Fremont, CA
Kenneth C. Cadien Mark Keefer
Intel Corporation KLA-Tencor Corporation
Hillsboro, OR Milpitas, CA
Robert Chow Werner Kern
Thin Film Division David Sarnoff Research Center
Varian Associates RCA Laboratories
Santa Clara, CA Princeton, NJ
George J. Collins Walter S. Knodle
Department of Electrical Engineering High Yield Technology, Inc.
Colorado State University Mountain View, CA
Fort Collins, CO
James J. McNally
Cheri Dennison Air Force Academy
KLA-Tencor Corporation Colorado Springs, CO
Milpitas, CA
John R. McNeil
John Foggiato Department of Electrical Engineering
Quester Technology, Inc. University of New Mexico
Fremont, CA Albuquerque, NM
xv
xvi Contributors
Cameron A. Moore Krishna Seshan
Department of Electrical Engineering Intel Corporation
Colorado State University Santa Clara, CA
Fort Collins, CO
Vivek Singh
Rebecca Pinto Intel Corporation
KLA-Tencor Corporation Hillsboro, OR
Milpitas, CA
Lance R. Thompson
Paul D. Reader Sandia National Labs
Ion Tech, Inc. Albuquerque, NM
Fort Collins, CO
James Turlo
Stephen Rossnagel KLA-Tencor Corporation
IBM Research Division Milpitas, CA
Yorktown Heights, NY
Zeng-qi Yu
Laura B. Rothman Colorado State University
IBM Fort Collins, CO
Yorktown Heights, NY
John L. Zilko
Dominic J. Schepis Optoelectrics Division
IBM Agere Systems
East Fishkill, NY Breinigsville, PA
Klaus K. Schuegraf
Tylan Corporation
Carson, CA
Contents
Foreword by Gordon E. Moore...............................................................ix
Preface to the Second Edition.................................................................xi
Preface to the First Edition....................................................................xiii
Contributors ...............................................................................xv
Recent Changes in the Semiconductor Industry ....................... 1
Krishna Seshan
1.0 COST OF DEVICE FABRICATION ...............................1
1.1 Role of Cleanliness in Cost of Equipment..............3
1.2 Role of Chip Size Trends, Larger Fabricators,
and 12" Wafers........................................................4
1.3 Lithography, Feature Size, and Cleaner
Fabricators and Equipment......................................4
1.4 Defect Density and the Need for Cleaner
Fabricators...............................................................5
1.5 Conclusions .............................................................7
2.0 TECHNOLOGY TRENDS, CHIP SIZE,
PERFORMANCE, AND MOORE’S LAW......................7
2.1 Performance of Packaged Chips—Trends ..............8
REFERENCES ..........................................................................9
xvii
xviii Contents
1 Deposition Technologies and Applications: Introduction
and Overview ..................................................................... 11
Werner Kern and Klaus K. Schuegraf
1.0 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THIS BOOK................11
2.0 IMPORTANCE OF DEPOSITION
TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN FABRICATION
PROCESSES...................................................................12
3.0 CLASSIFICATION OF DEPOSITION
TECHNOLOGIES...........................................................14
4.0 OVERVIEW OF VARIOUS THIN-FILM
DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES..................................14
4.1 Evaporative Technologies.....................................14
4.2 Glow-Discharge Technologies..............................17
4.3 Gas-Phase Chemical Processes.............................20
4.4 Liquid-Phase Chemical Formation........................25
5.0 CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF A
DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGY FOR SPECIFIC
APPLICATIONS.............................................................28
5.1 Thin-Film Applications.........................................29
5.2 Material Characteristics.........................................30
5.3 Process Technology...............................................32
5.4 Thin-Film Manufacturing Equipment...................35
6.0 SUMMARY AND PERSPECTIVE FOR THE FUTURE.36
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.......................................................39
REFERENCES ........................................................................40
2 Silicon Epitaxy by Chemical Vapor Deposition.............. 45
Martin L. Hammond
1.0 INTRODUCTION...........................................................45
1.1 Applications of Silicon Epitaxy ............................46
2.0 THEORY OF SILICON EPITAXY BY CVD................49
3.0 SILICON EPITAXY PROCESS CHEMISTRY.............52
Contents xix
4.0 COMMERCIAL REACTOR GEOMETRIES................54
4.1 Horizontal Reactor.................................................55
4.2 Cylinder Reactor....................................................56
4.3 Vertical Reactor.....................................................56
4.4 New Reactor Geometry.........................................56
5.0 THEORY OF CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION......57
6.0 PROCESS ADJUSTMENTS ..........................................60
6.1 Horizontal Reactor.................................................61
6.2 Cylinder Reactor....................................................63
6.3 Vertical Reactor.....................................................64
6.4 Control of Variables..............................................66
7.0 EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR
SILICON EPITAXY .......................................................67
7.1 Gas Control System...............................................68
7.2 Leak Testing ..........................................................68
7.3 Gas Flow Control...................................................70
7.4 Dopant Flow Control.............................................72
8.0 OTHER EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATIONS................78
8.1 Heating Power Supplies ........................................78
8.2 Effect of Pressure ..................................................78
8.3 Temperature Measurement....................................79
8.4 Backside Transfer..................................................82
8.5 Intrinsic Resistivity................................................83
8.6 Phantom p-Type Layer..........................................84
9.0 DEFECTS IN EPITAXY LAYERS................................84
10.0 SAFETY..........................................................................87
11.0 KEY TECHNICAL ISSUES...........................................87
11.1 Productivity/Cost...................................................87
11.2 Uniformity/Quality................................................91
11.3 Buried Layer Pattern Transfer...............................91
11.4 Autodoping............................................................96
12.0 NEW MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY FOR
SILICON EPITAXY .....................................................104
13.0 LOW TEMPERATURE EPITAXY..............................105
