Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy Volumes 1 to 4

1228 Pages·1998·121.32 MB·English

by  Fathi Habashi

Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy
Edited by Fatbi Habashi
Volume I: The Metal Industry
Ferrous Metals
@WILEY-VCH
Weinheim· Chichester·NewYork·Toronto·Brisbane·Singapore
ProfessorFathiHabashi
UniversiteLaval
DepartementdeMinesetdeMetallurgie
Preface
QuebecG1K7P4
Canada
EX1ractivemetallurgyisthatbranchofmet presentfourvolumeswillf1l1 thegapformod
allurgythatdealswithoresasrawmaterialand ernextractivemetallurgy.
Thisbookwascarefullyproduced.Nevertbeles,theeditor,the autorsandpublisherdonotwarrantthe metalsasfInished products.Itisan ancientart TheHandbook is an updated collectionof
informationcontainedthereintobefreeoferrors.Readersareadvisedtokeepinmindthatstatements, that has been transformed into a modern sci more than ahundredentriesin UllmannsEn
data,illustrations,proceduraldetailsorotheritemsmayinadvertentlybeinaccurate. ence as aresult ofdevelopments in cheinistry cyclopedia ofIndustrialChemistlYwritten by
andchemicalengineering.Thepresentvolume over200 specialists. Some articles were writ
is acollectiveworkofanumberofauthors in tenspecificallyfortheHandbook. Someprob
wliichmetals, theirhistory, properties, extrac lems are certainly faced whenpreparing such
EditorialDirectors:KarinSora,UseBedrich tiontechnology, andmostimportantinorganic avastamountofmaterial. Thefollowing may
ProductionManager:Peter1.Biel compounds and toxicology are systematically bementioned:
Coverillustration:MichelMeyer/mmad described.
• Although arsenic, antimony, bismuth, bo
Metals are neitherarranged by alphabetical
ron, germanium, silicon, selenium, and tel
order as in an encyclopedia, nor according to
lurium are metalloids because they have
the Periodic Table as in chemistry textbooks.
covalentandnotmetallicbonds,theyarein
The system used here is according to an eco
cluded here because most ofthem are pro
nomicclassification which reflects mainly the
duced in metallurgical plants, either in the
LibraryofCongressCardNo.appliedfor uses,theoccurrence,andtheeconomicvalueof
elementalformorasferroalloys.
ACIPcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary metals. First, the ferrous metals, i.e., the pro
duction ofiron, steel, and ferroalloys are out • Each chapter contains the articles on the
metalinquestionanditsmostimportantinor
lined. Then, nonferrous metals are subdivided
ganiccompounds.However,therearecertain
intoprimary,secondary, light,precious, refnlc
tory, scattered,radioactive,rare earths,ferroai compounds that are conveniently described
togetherandnotunderthemetalsinquestion
loy metals, the alkali, and the alkaline earth
metals. for a variety ofreasons. These are: the hy
drides, carbides, nitrides, cyano compounds,
Although the general tendency today in
DieDeutscheBibliothek- CIP-Einheitsaufnahme peroxocompounds,nitrates,nitrites,silicates,
teachingextractivemetallurgy isbasedonthe
HandbookofextractivemetallurgyIed.byFathiHabashi. fluorine compounds, bromides, iodides,
Weinbeim;NewYork;Chichester;Brisbane;Singapore;Toronto: fundamental aspects ratherthan on a system
sulfites, thiosulfates, dithionites, and phos
WILEY-VCH ISBN3-527-28792-2 aticdescriptionofmetal extractionprocesses,
phates. Thesearecollectedtogetherinaspe
Vol.1.Themetalindustry,ferrousmetals.-1997 it has been found by experience that the two
cialsupplemententitledSpecialTopics,under
Vol.2.Primarymetals,secondarymetals,lightmetals.-1997 approaches are complementary. The student preparation.
musthave abasicknowledge ofmetal extrac
Vol.3.Preciousmetals,refractorymetals,scatteredmetals,radioactivemetals,rareearthmetals.-1997
tionprocesses: hydro-, pyro-, and electromet • Becauseoflimitationofspace,itwasnotpos
Vol.4.Ferroalloymetals,alkalimetals,alkalineearthmetals;Nameindex;Subjectindex.-1997
allurgy, and at thesame time he must have at sible to include the alloys of metals in the
his disposal a descriptionofhow apartiCUlar present work. Another supplement entitled
©VCHVerlagsgesellschaftmbH- AWileycompany, metal is extracted industrially from different Alloysisunderpreparation.
D-69451Weinheim,FederalRepublicofGermany,1997
rawmaterialsandknowwhatareitsimportant • Since the largest amount of coke is con
Printedonacid-freeandlow-chlorinepaper compounds. It is for this reason, that this sumed in iron production as compared to
All rights reserved (including those of translation into other languages). No part of this book may be Handbookhasbeenconceived. other metals, the articles "Coal" and "Coal
reproducedinanyform- byphotoprinting,microfilm,oranyothermeans- nortransmittedortranslatedinto
TheHandbookisthefirstofitstypeforex Pyrolysis" are included in the chapterdeal
amachinelanguagewithoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublishersRegisterednames,trademarks,etc.usedin
thisbook,evenwhennotspecificallymarkedassuch,arenottobeconsideredunprotectedbylaw. tractive metallurgy. Chemical engineers have ingwithiron.
Composition:JeanFran~oisMorin,Quebec,Canada alreadyhadtheirPerry'sChemicalEngineers' IamgratefultotheeditorsatVCHVerlags
Printing:StraussOffsetdruckGmbH,D-69509Morlenbach Handbook for over fifty years, and physical gesellschaftfortheirexcellentcooperation, in
Bookbinding:WJ1helmOswald& Co.,D-67433NeustadtlWeinstraBe metallurgists have an impressive 18-volume partiCUlarMrs. Karin Sora who followed the
PrintedintheFederalRepublicofGermany ASMMetals Handbook. It is hoped that the project since its conception in 1994, and to
vi HandbookofExtractiveMetallurgy
lean-Franyois Morin at Laval University for thereforebeusefultoindustrialchemistsaswell. Table ofContents
hisexpertiseinwordprocessing. Itcan also beuseful to engineers and scientists
Thepresentworkshouldbeusefulasarefer from otherdisciplines, butitis anessential aid
ence work for the practising engineers and the fortheextractivemetallurgist.
volume! Part RefractoryMetals
studentsofmetallurgy, chemistry, chemicalen
gineering, geology, mining, andmineralbenefi Seven 26 Tungsten 1329
Par( One The Metal Industry
ciation. Extractivemetallurgy and the chemical 27 Molylxlenum 1361
industry arecloselyrelated;thisHandbookwill FarhiHabashi 1 TheEconomic Classifica- 28 Niobium 1403
tionofMetals. . ' 1
29 Tantalum ~ ..1417
2 MetalProduction 15
30 Zirconium 1431
3 RecyclingofMetals 21
31 Hafnium 1459
4 By-ProductMetals 23
32 Vanadium 1471
Part Two Ferrous Metals 33 Rhenium 1491
5 Iron 29
PartEight Scattered Metals
6 Steel 269
7 Ferroalloys .403 34 Gennanium 1505
35 Gallium 1523
Volume!! 36 Indium 1531
37 Thallium 1543
Part Primary Metals 38 Selenium 1557
Three 8 Copper 491 39 Tellurium 157l
9 Lead 581
PartNine Radioactive Metals
10 Zinc , 641
11 Tin 6'33 40 General. 1585
12 Nickel 715 41 Uranium 1599
42 Thorium 1649
PartFour SecondaryMetals
43 Plutonium 1685
13 Arsenic 795
14 Antimony 823 Part Ten Rare Earth Metals
15 Bismuth 845 44 General. 1695
16 Cadmium 869 45 Cerium 1743
17 Mercury 891
18 Cobalt 923 Volume IV
PartFive LightMetals
Part Ferroalloy Metals
19 Beryllium 955
Eleven 46 Chromium 1761
20 Magnesium 981
47 Manganese 1813
21 Aluminum 1039
48 Silicon 1861
22 Titanium 1129
49 Boron 1985
Volume!!!
Part Alkali Metals
Part Six Precious Metals Twelve 50 Lithium 2029
23 Gold........... 1183 51 Sodium 2053
24 Silver 1215 52 Potassium 2141
25 PlatinumGroup 53 Rubidium 2211
Metals 1269 54 Cesium 2215
viii HandbookofExtractiveMetallllrgy
Part One
55 AlkaliSulfur
Compounds 2221
The Metal Industry
Part AlkalineEarth Metals
Thirteen 56 Calcium 2249
57 Strontium 2329
58 Barium 2337
i\uthors 2355
NameIndex 2375 Li Be Metalloids
Metals
SubjectIndex 2379 Na Mg A1
K Ca Sc Ii V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Ie Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
Cs Ba Lat Hf Ia W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
Fr Ra Act
1 The Economic Classification ofMetals
FATHIHABASHI
1.1 Introduction...................... 1 1.3.4 PreciousMetals................ 8
1.2 FerrousMetals................... 1 1.3.5 RefractoryMetals............... 8
1.2.1 Steel......................... 1 1.3.6 ScatteredMetals................ 10
1.2.2 WroughtIron.................. 2 1.3.7 RadioactiveMetals.............. 10
1.2.3 CastIrons..•...............•.. 2
1.3.8 RareEarths...................... 12
1.2.4 PureIron ..................... 3
1.3.9 FerroalloyMetals............... 12
1.3 NonferrousMetals................ 3
1.3.10 AlkaliMetals.................. 12
1.3.1 PrimaryMetals................ 3
1.3.11 AlkalineEarthMetals............ 13
1.3.2 SecondaryMetals.............. 5
1.3.3 LightMetals................... 6 1.4 References....................... 13
1.1 Introduction 1.2.1 Steel
While the Periodic Table classifiesmetals, Steel is made on a large scale by blowing
metalloids, and nonmetals according to their oxygen and powdered lime through molten
chemical properties, it does not indicate their iron to oxidize the impurities. According to
relativeeconomicvalue.Thefactthatironand their use, steels are divided into three main
itsalloys,e.g.,steel,arebyfarthemostimpor groups:
tant metalsfrom the pointofview ofproduc
tion and use, has resulted in the classification Constructional Steel. This is used for the
cars,
ofmetals as ferrous (iron and its alloys) and manufacture of machine parts, motor
nonferrous (all other metals and metalloids). building elements, slqr scrapers, ships,
Thisclassificationiswelljustified: the annual bridges, war instruments (cannons, tanks,
productionofironinoneyearexceedsthepro etc.), andcontainers. Itcanbecarbonoralloy
duction of all other metals combined in ten steel. Themechanicalpropertiesofalloy steel
years. are considerably higher than those ofcarbon
steel. chromium and nickel are the main al
1.2 Ferrous Metals loyingelementsusedinthis category.
Ironproducedintheblastfurnace(pigiron) ToolSteel.Thisisusedforthemanufactureof
is converted into the following commercial tools (latheknives, chisels, cutters, etc.). Itis
products: Steel, wrought iron, cast irons, and either carbon (0.7-1.2% C), or chromium,
pure iron. Table 1.1 showstypical analysis of manganese, silicon, or tungsten alloy steel.
these products; steel is the most important Manganese alloy steels are used to make ma
product.Chemicallypureironispreparedona chines such asrockcrushers andpowershov
smallscalebecauseofitslimiteduse. els,whichmustwithstandextremelyharduse.
Table1.1:Typicalanalysisofferrousmaterials.
Pigiron Castiron Whitecastiron Steel Wroughtiron
C 3.5--4.25 2.50-3.75 1.75-2.70 0.10 0.02
Si 1.25 0.50-3.00 0.8--1.20 0.02 0.15
Mn 0.90-2.50 0.40-1.00 <0.4 0040 0.03
S 0.04 0.01--0.18 0.07-0.15 0.03 0.02
P 0.06-3.00 0.12-1.10 <0.02 0.D3 0.12
Slag o o 0 0 3.00
2 HandbookofExtractiveMetallurgy TheEconomicClassificationofMetals 3
Special-Quality Steel. These include corro which carbon-ispresentin the castirondeter duced from any cast iron by introducing a properties, use, and occurrence (Table 1.2).
sion-resisting, stainless, acid~resisting, and minesitsproperties. small amount of magnesium (in form of a Thisclassificationisarbitrarysinceonemetal
heat-resisting steels. Stainless steel, which magnesium-nickel alloy containing 50-80% may beplaced in two groups, e.g., titaniumis
Grey Cast Iron. Produced by melting pig
containschromiumandsometimesnickel and iron, scrap iron, and steel mixture to give the Ni),orceriumintothemoltenironwhileinthe bothalight and arefractory metal, rheniumis
manganese,is ahard, strong alloy that resists
cast iron composition. The slow cooling and ladle,shortlybeforecasting. Thisadditioncat both scattered and refractory; similarly
heat and corrosion. Stainless steels are used
thehighsiliconcontentfavorsthedecomposi alyzesthedecompositionofcarboninto sphe hafnium. The term"raremetals"issometimes
for such things as jet engines, automobile
tion ofcementite into iron and free carbon in
parts, knives, forks, spoons, and kitchen roidsandnotflakes. applied to the refractory, scattered, radioac
theform offlakes_ Gray castironischaracter
equipment. tive,andthelanthanidescollectively. Thister
ized by its power to damp vibrations and by
thewearresistanceimpartedbythelubricating 1.2.4 PureIron minology is misleading because such metals
1.2.2 WroughtIron effect of graphite. Both properties make it a arenotrare;itmaybethedifficultyintheirex
usefulmaterialfortheconstructionofmachin . High-purityironpossessestemporarymag traction and uncommon utilization that give
Wrought iron was known since antiquity erybycasting.Itisreadilymachinable(dueto netism, i.e., when the magnetic field is re
theimpressionthatthey arerare.
and was the majorferrous material produced graphite flakes) and is an economic material moved, the magnetism disappears. Carbon
until the nineteenth Century; it is produced since it has a low melting point of about ironalloysontheotherhand,showpermanent
1.3.1 PrimaryMetals
nowinlimitedamounts. Wroughtironisprac 1200DC. It has, however, poortoughness and
magnetism. For this as well as for other rea
tically pure iron, low in carbon, manganese, limitedtensilestrength.
sons, e.g., studying the physical properties of Whileironisthemostwidely usedmetal,it
sulfur, andphosphorus, butcontainsan appre
White Cast Iron. Produced by melting pig the metal, the preparation ofhigh-purity iron lacks important properties such as corrosion
ciable amount of slag in mechanical admix
iron and steel scrap. After solidifIcation no
ture. Its desirable properties are due to the is of scientific interest. Preparation of pure resistance. From the beginning of the Nine
carbonisprecipitatedbutremainsincombina
fibrousstructureofthisslagwhichgivesitex iron is a tedious process that requires special teenth Century, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, and
tion as ironcarbide. Itis hard, brittle, and un
cellentresistancetoshockandvibration,mak machinable. It is used for making grinding techniquesandnumerousoperations. tinandtheiralloysfounduseassubstitutesfor
ingitparticularly suitableforthemanufacture
balls, dies, car wheels, but mostly used for iron in industrial applications that required
ofsuchproducts asenginebolts,cranehooks,
makingmalleablecastiron. 1.3 Nonferrous Metals particular properties in which cast irons and
lifting chains and couplings. Wrought iron is
readily welded, and the presence of slag Malleable Cast Iron. Prepared from white steels were lacking. That is one reason why
makes itself-fluxing. Itisreadily machinable cast iron by annealing for several days, Thenonferrous metals are dividedinto nu these metals are known as primary metals.
and cuttings are sharp and clean because the whereby ironcarbide isdecomposedintoiron merous groups according to theirproduction, (Table1.3).
chips crumble and clear the dies instead of and graphite in form of nodules. It is more
forming long spirals. Wrought iron is made ductile and more resistant to shock than grey Table1.2:Commercialclassificationofnonferrousmetalsandmetalloids.
from pig iron by melting in a furnace lined castiron.Itisusedinlargequantitiesforsuch Group Metals Remarks
with ferrous oxide. Under these conditions, materialsaspipesandpipefittings andtheau Primary Cu,Pb,Zn,Sn,Ni Extensivelyused;secondinimportancetoiron.
theentirecarboncontentofthepigironisoxi tomativeindustryrequiringhighermechanical Secondary As,Sb,Bi,Cd,Hg,Co Mainlyby-productsofprimarymetalsbutalsofonntheirown
deposits.Usedinalmostequalamounts(10-20thousandtonsan
dized and removed, as well as most of the properties.
nually).
otherimpuritieswhilesiliconformsslag. As a Ductile CastIron. Itisahigh-carbonferrous Light Be,Mg,AI,Ji Lowspecificgravity(below4.5),usedmainlyasmaterialofcon
result, the meltingpointofthemassincreases struction.
product containing graphite in the form of
and a sticky lump is obtained saturated with Precious Au,Ag,Pt,Os,!T,Ru,Rh,Pd Donotrust;highlypriced.
spheroids. The spheroid is a single poly
slag. the lump, which weighs about 200kg is Refractory W,Mo,Nb,Ta,Ti,Zr,Hf,V,Re, Meltingpointsabove1650DC.Mainlyusedasalloyingelements
crysallineparticle,whereasthenoduleiscom
removed from the furnace then putthrough a Cr insteelbutalsousedintheelementalform.Someresisthightem
posed ofan aggregate offine flakes. Ductile peraturewithoutoxidation.
squeezertoremoveasmuchslagaspossible. cast iron has all the advantages of cast iron, Scattered Sc,Ge,Ga,In,Tl,Hf,Re,Se,Te Donotformmineralsoftheirown.Distributedinextremely
e.g., low melting point, goodfluidity and ca minuteamountsintheearth'scrust.
1.2.3 CastIrons stability, ready machinability, and low cost, Radioactive Po,Ra,Ac,Th,Pa,U,Pu Undergoradioactivedecay.Someofthem(0,Pu,andTh)un
dergofission.Plutoniumpreparedartificiallyinnuclearreactors.
plus the additional advantages of high yield
Rareearths Y,La,Ce,Pr,Nd,Sm,Eu,Gd, Alwaysoccurtogether,similarchemicalproperties.Notrareas
Cast iron is a series of iron-carbon alloys strength, high elasticity, and a substantial Th,Dy,Ho,Er,Tm,Yb,Lu thenameimplies.
containing more than 1.5%C, together with amount ofductility. Itis used by the automo Ferroalloy Cr,Mil,Si,B Wereoncemainlyusedasalloyingelementstostee~butnow
silicon, manganese, phosphorus, and -sulfur tive, agricultural instruments and railroad in metals alsousedinelementalform.
which are impurities from the raw material dustries, pumps, compressors, valves, and Alkali Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs Softandhighlyreactive.
and are not alloying elements. The form in textile machinery. Ductile cast iron is pro- -Alkalineearths Be,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba Highermeltingpointandlessreactivethanthealklalimetals
4 HandbookofExtractiveMetallllrgy TheEconomicClassificationofMetals 5
Table1.3:Typicalusesofprimarymetals. per, canreadily beshaped andmachined, and structures, generalmachinebuilding, andmil hard,whiletingreatlyimprovestheircastabil
are strong, hard and resistant to corrosion. itary engineering. Strong and wear-resistant ity.Alloysofleadandantimony,hardandcor
Metal Use %
They fInd extensive application in chemical nickelcastirons, alloyedwithchromium,mo rosion-resistant, find extensive use in
Copper Electrical 50
Buildings 20 and general machine-building, ship-building lybdenum, and copper, are necessary for the chemical engineering. In soldering alloys, or
Engineeringandtransport 25 andmilitaryengineering.Bronzeisanalloyof manufactureofheavy internalcombustionen solders,leadmaypartlyreplacetin.
Other 5 copperwith6to 20% tin thatfound extensive gines for locomotives and ofspecial machine
100 Zinc. Zinc protects iron against corrosion in
use because ofits excellentmechanical, anti toolsanddies.
the air and in cold water. More than half of
Lead Batteries 35 friction, and anticorrosion properties. Alloys Many nickel alloys are chemically resis
Pipes,sheets 15 zinc output is consumed for this purpose.
Gasolineadditive 12 similar to bronze are prepared by admixing tant and can withstand temperatures up to Zinc-plating (galvanizing) is considerably
Cablesheathing 10 metalsotherthantinto copper,e.g.,aluminum 600 cC. They are usedfor turbines ofjet air cheaperthantin-platingornickel-plating. An
Pigments,chemicals 10 (5-11%), lead (25-33%), silicon (4-5%), craft, gasturbinepowerplants, andinnuclear
Alloys,solder 10 otherimportantfIeldofapplicationistheman
andberyllium(1.8-2.3%).Aluminumbronzes reactors. Nichrome (75-85% Ni, 10-20% Cr,
Other 7 ufacture of alloys, inclusive of the already
100 withadditionsofleadaresuitableforbearings the balance iron) and other similar thermo mentioned brases and German silver. Zinc
whileberylliumbronzesareusedinthemanu electric nickel alloys are not only refractory,
Zinc Galvanizing 40 based alloys, partly employed instead of
Diecasting 27 facture of springs. Copper-nickel alloys (5 but possess high electrical resistance and are bronzes and low-friction alloys in bearings,
Alloys 18 35% Ni) and German silver (5-30% Ni and suitable for wire or strip resistor heaters. contain aluminium (8-11%), copper (1-2%
Sheet,wire,etc. 8 13-45%Zn)areparticularlyresistantto attack Strongly, magnetic alloys ofnickel with iron
Zinccompounds 5 andmagnesium(0.03-0.06%).Identicalcom
Other 2 by aggressive media. They are used to make (permalloys) and othersimilaralloysfInd ex ponents, but in a different ratio to zinc, are
100 medical instruments, home appliances, and tensive application in electrical and radio en
containedinprintingalloys, similarinproper
Tm TInplate 50 worksofart. CopperwasthefIrstamongnon gineering. Alloys ofnickel with copper have tiestolead-antimony alloys.
Solder 20 ferrous metals in world output until 1958 beenmentionedearlier.
Alloys 15 whenitwasmovedto secondplaceby alumi Tin. Used in tin-plating, solders, bronze and
Chemicals 3 num. Inelectricalengineering, copperismore Lead. Lead was used to make coins, orna other alloys. At one time was used for wrap
Other 12
100 andmore beingreplacedby aluminum, which ments,miscellaneousvessels,andwaterpipes. pingpurposedinformoftinfoil.
Withtheinventionofgunpowder,itfounduse
Nickel Stainlesssteel 28 islesselectroconductive,butlighter.
Castironsandalloysteels 20 for the manufactureofcase-shot, bullets,,and 1.3.2 SecondaryMetals
Nonferrousalloys 20 Nickel. As compared to other heavy nonfer shot.Abilitiesofleadtoresist attackbydilute
High-temperaturealloys 12 rous metals, nickel is stronger, harder, more sulfuric and hydrochloric acids and many This group includes the metals cadmium,
Electroplating 16
Catalysts 1 refractory andmorecorrosionresistant. Simi otllerchemicalshavemadethemetalthechief cobalt, and mercury and the metalloids ar
Other 3 larto ironand cobalt, itisferromagnetic. Itis materialfor the chemical industry in the 19th senic, antimony, and bismuth. They are
100 relatively expensive and its consumption as a century. Leadis amenable to rolling: sheets 2 mainly by-productsofthe primary metals but
pure metal is low. Nickel is used for plating to 10rom thick are suitablefor anti-corrosion also form their own deposits. They are used
Copper. The highheatconductivityofcopper metalswithaviewtoprotectthen againstcor coating ofvarious apparatus. Sheathsofelec worldwide in almost equal amounts of about
makesitasuitablematerialofconstructionfor rosion and for ornamental purposes. Nickel tric cables intended for prolonged under 20000tonsannually(Table 1.4).
heat conducting devices such as heating or sheets, pipes, and wire are used for special groundservice,inwaterormoistsurroundings
cooling coils, boiling kettles, and other parts components of apparatus and instruments in are made from lead blended with small Cadmium. Cadmium is used in the metallic
ofchemicalengineeringapparatus.Becauseof the chemical industry. Nickel is also required amountsofothermetalstoenhanceitsplastic forminelectroplatingand alloying. Cadmium
its high electrical conductivity it became the forthe manufacture ofcertain types ofbatter ity. Lead storage batteries are necessary to compounds are used in paints and pigments;
chief material for conductors, contacts, and ies which are lighter, more compact and de start internal combustion engines. About half cadmium sulfIde is yellow, and cadmium se
other electroconductive parts. It is used only pendable in operation than lead batteries. ofthe lead produced is used in the manufac lenide is red. Cadmium compounds are toxic
as a pure metal since traces of impurities NickelcatalystsfIndtheirapplicationinmany tureofelectriccablesandstoragebatteries. In and therefore care must be taken during pro
greatly reduce this property. However, pure chemicalprocesses. nuclear engineering, lead serves as a shield cessing cadmium and its compoundsto avoid
copperistoosoftforstructuralcomponentsof againsty-rays. inhalationordispersalofcadmiumfumes and
Morethanhalfofnickelisconsumedinthe
machines and apparatus. Its alloys with other dust orthe release ofcadmium-bearing efflu
manufacture of nickel-iron alloys. Chro Lead alloys differfrom the pure metal ei
metals are much stronger and many ofthem entsintotheenvironment.
mium-nickel, stainless, and acid-resistant therbygreaterstrengthandhardnessorbyan
surpasscopperinotherproperties,e.g.,incor
steels,commonly containingupto 8% Ni and tifrictionproperties, andmostofthealloysare Cobalt. This metal is usedprincipally in heat
rosionresistance. with admixtures ofchromium and othermet resistantto corrosion.Printing alloysfor cast and corrosion-resistant alloys, in jet engine
Alloys of copper with 10 to 40% Zn are als, are widely used in the chemicalindustry, ing type contain antimony, tin, and copper in parts,andinmagnets.Italsoservesasabinder
calledbrass. They are cheaperthen pure cop- machinetoolmanufacture,buildingofdurable addition to lead. Antimony makes the alloys material in tungsten and othercarbidecutting
G HandbookofExtractiveMetallurgy TheEconomicClassificationofMetals 7
tools, and in hardfacing alloys. Nonmetallic Arsenic.Arsenicisregardedas atroublesome form, 80%informofberyllium--copperalloys aircraftand automotiveenginesastheyreadily
applications (paint drier, ceramics, and cata impurity insmeltingandrefining andmustbe (containing about 2%Be), orothermasteral reproduce mould configuration; they are also
lysts) accountfor about 20% ofits consump removed during the recovery of the primary loys, and the remaining 10% is used as a re lightandstrong.
tion. metals. Its compounds are toxic and therefore fractory oxide. In the metallic form it is used Thesurfaceofaluminumandofitsalloysis
their handling in a plant is costly because of as amoderator to slow down fast neutrons in always coated by a thin but strong layer of
Table1.4:Typicalusesofsecondarymetals. the strict anti-contamination measures. Its nuclear reactors because of its low atomic Al 0 whichprotectsitagainstfurther oxida
2 3
Metal Use % consumption in the metallic form is only 3% weight and low neutron cross section. As an tion. The film is extra strong ifitis obtained
Antimony Batteries 47 ofthe total; it is mostly used as compounds. alloy with copper, it is particularly important by anodic oxidation. The film can readily be
Pigments,chemicals 18 Asmetal,itisusedas aminoradditiveinnon in springs because such alloys possess high dyed in many colors and this is widely used.
Fireretardants 11 ferrous alloys (copper and lead based) to im elasticityandgreatendurance. Thestrengthofthesurfacefilms and-itsharm
Rubber,plastics 8 prove their strength, and sometimes to lessness to users make aluminum suitable for
Glass,ceramics 6 Table1.5:Typicalusesoflightmetals.
Bearingalloys 4 improvecorrosionresistance. Intheelectronic the manufacture ofvarious equipment in the
Metal Use %
Other 6 industry,high-purity arseniciscombinedwith food industry. In theform offoil itis used for
100 gallium and/or indium for making semicon Beryllium Electricindustry 37 packingfoodstuffs. Aluminumpowderis also
Electronicindustry 16
Cadmium Cadmiumplating 50 ductors, solar cells, infrared detectors, light used in.the manufacture ofpaint The strong
PPliagsmtiecnstsstabilizer 2105 emitting diodes, and lasers. Arsenic com NAuercolespaarcreeactors 2108 affmityofaluminummakesitsuitableforpre
Ni-Cdbatteries 7 pounds are mainly used as herbicides and in Others 9 paringmetalsfrom theiroxides.Becauseofits
Other 8 secticides. 100 abundance in the Earth's crust, the metal is
100 Aluminum Buildings 30 morelikely to be used as asubstituteto wood,
Antimony.Antimony ismainly used as anal
Transportation(automotive,
Cobalt Alloys 45 plastics, and other construction materials.
loyingconstituentoflead, e.g., to hardenlead aircrafts) 20
Magnets 30
Paintdriers 10 for storage batteries, and as alloying element Electrical 15 Nonmetallic applications of aluminum ac
Ceramics 5 in bearings, type metal, and solder. In com Packaging 15 count for about 10% ofthe element. Bauxite
Catalysts 5 pound form antimony trioxide is used in ce Others(reducingagent,paint) TO2O0 and alumina are used as refractories, fused
Other 5 aluminaisusedinabrasives,aluminumsulfate
ramicenamelsinplastics, as awhitepigment,
100 TItanium Jetengine 84
Mercury Caustic-chlorinecells 35 andasflameretardant. Chemicalindustry 16 isusedinwatertreatment.
Batteries,electrical 28 Bismuth.Bismuthismainlyusedfortheman )(JO Magnesium. Magnesium is lighter than alu
Biocidalpaints 14 ufactureoflow-meltingalloys(m.p. aslowas Magnesium Asmetalandalloy(reducing minum resists poorly the action of atmo
Instruments 10 agent) 65
Dental 5 60 DC) which are used for making safety Asoxideforrefractories 7 spheric air, particularly when moist but its
Agriculture 3 plugs. Fertilizer,paper,etc. 28 alloys with aluminum, zinc, and manganese
Other 6 100 are adequately corrosion resistant. These al
100
loys, readily castable and machinable, have a
1.3.3 LightMetals Aluminum. Pure aluminum often replaces
wide application in the manufacture of air
Mercury. In oldertimes mercury wasprinci copperinelectrical engineering. Although its
These are beryllium, aluminum, magne craft, automotiveindustry, andinrockets. The
pally used for the recovery ofgold and silver electrical conductivity is only 65% that.of
sium,andtitanium.Theyareusedinpurestate highaffmity ofmagnesiumforoxygenallows
from their ores by amalgamation, a process copper, the density of aluminum: is almost
and in alloys, characterized by light weight its use as a reducing agentformetallotherrnic
that isnow obsoletebecauseofthe poisonous andhighstrengthhencethey arevaluablema three times as less (Cu 8.95, Al 2.7). This reactions,e.g.,productionoftitaniumandura
nature ofthe metal vapor. It is now used as a terialsofconstruction(Table1.5).Theyarere meansalesserconsumptionofthemetal. Also nium. Thehigh affinityofmagnesiumforoxy
suspension of aluminum conductors requires
liquidcathodeinchlorineandsodiumhydrox active metals and difficult to prepare and gen and its ability to burn in the air with
fewer poles than thatfor copper. Pure alumi
ide manufacture. The mercury lamps use and becameknown in the metallic staterelatively evolutionoflarge quantities ofheat and light
num is soft, but, ifalloyed with small addi
electric discharge tube that contains mercury recent. makes itsuitable inthe manufactureofincen
tions of other elements its mechachical
vapor; they are more efficient as a light diary shells and flares. The main application
Beryllium. Beryllium is an expensive metal strengthincreases. Aluminum alloys combine
source. Mercury is also used in electrical ofmagnesium atpresentis anoxide used as a
used in small and specialized industries. Its strength, lightness, and corrosion resistance.
switching devices, in thermometers and ba dust and fumes as well as vapors ofits com Its large scale production started in the first refractory brick for furnace lining. A large
rometers, as an alloy with silver and tin for poundsarepoisonoustoinhale.Itisfabricated quarterofthis century when aeronautics was amount ofthis material is prepared from sea
water.
dental applications. Nonmetallic applications by powder metallurgy techniques because thenmakingitsfirststeps. Todayitfmdswide
includemercuric oxide inbatteries, incertain coarse grains tend to develop in the castings application in building construction. Alumi Titanium. Titaniumissomewhatheavierthan
organicpreparationsasfungicide, bactericide, causing brittleness and low tensile strength. numalloyscontainingsiliconarecsedincast magnesium and aluminum, but it is stronger
orpreservative. About10%ofthemetalisusedinthemetallic ing, cylinders, pistons, and other parts of and very resistant to corrosion. TitaniUm and
8 HandbookofExtractiveMetallurgy TheEconomicClassificationofMetals 9
itsalloysresistheatupto450 °e,whereasalu • All the goldeverminedintheworldwould someareveryhard,havingexcellentwearand eralliquidmetals including sodium, mercury,
minum and magnesium alloys tend to fail at fit into a store room measuring 17 metres abrasionresistance(Table1.7). gallium, and magnesium; to oxide ceramics
about300°e. Thatis why titanium alloysbe long, 17metreshigh,and 17metreswide. such as alumina, magnesia, zirconia and tho
Table1.7:Typicalusesofrefractorymetals.
camethe basicmaterialsforjetaircraft. Tita • The American Federal Reserve Bank on ria. Itis oftenusedfor cruciblestomeltthese
niumalloysareusedforthemanufactureofjet Wall Streetis thebiggestrepository ofgold Metal Use % materialsinaninertatmosphere..
engines, rockets, and shells ofsatellites. The in the world: some 13000 tons of gold are Vanadium Ferrousalloys 80 Molybdenum. Molybdenum is hard with re
largestapplicationoftitaniumisanoxideused kept behind 90 ton steel doors in vaults NCoatnafleyrsrto(uVs2a0ll5o)ys 1100 spect to tensile stresses. Its electric and heat
asawhitepigment. blastedoutofsolidgranite. 100 conductivities are somewhatlowerthan those
• Gold is used in the electronics industry to Chromium Metallurgical(stainlesssteel) 58 of tungsten. When heated without access of
1.3.4 Precious Metals make more than 10 billion tiny electrical Refractories(oxide) • 30 air,itisreadily amenabletomechamcal work
Chemicalindustry(tanningof
contactseveryyear. ingandcanbedrawnintoathinwire.Itretains
TIns group ofmetals iscomposed ofgold, leather,electroplating) 12
ae.
silver, andthesixplatinumgroupmetals:plat • Of the estimated 100000 tons of refined 100 strengthup totemperaturesofabout 1000
inum, osmium, iridium, ruthenium, rhodium, goldintheworld- bullion,jewellery,coin Molybdenum Steelindustry 80 It is used in parts ofvacuum apparatus, e.g.,
and palladium. They are all common in that nolessthan40000tons, or40%wasmined Chemicals 20 hooksforfJlamentsinelectricbulbs,targetsof
they do not rust, and arehighly priced (Table inSouthAfricasince 1886. 100 X-ray tubes, heaters ofhigh-temperature fur
Tungsten Tungstencarbides 53 naces, plates ofgenerator and rectifier tubes.
1.6). • Over50 tonsofgoldare usedeveryyearby Alloysteels 23 Molybdenumsteels posses ahighmechanical
TlIble1.6:Typicalusesofpreciousmetals. theworld'sdentists. Eleetricallamps 13
strength, wearability and impactstrength. Be
Chemicals 4
Metal Use % III Italyisbyfarthebiggestuserofgoldforthe Other 7 cause molybdenum oxidizes rapidly at about
Gold Jewelryandarts 70 manufacture of jewellery: about 250 tons 100 600 aeinair, aprotectivecoatingisneededin
Dental 9 annually, enough to make 100millionwed hot air applications. Many coatings involve
SOpthaceeranddefence 138 dingrings. pTouinngtsotfenal.l.Tmuentaglsst;enitahlassothhaeshoingehoesftthmeehlitginhg formation ofathinlayerofMoSi2onthe sur
100 Silver.Puresilveristoosoftformanyapplica est densities. When combinedwith carbon, it face ofthe molybdenum part. The compound
Silver Silverware 29 tionsandanalloyofsilverandcopperiscom becomesoneofthehardestman-mademateri has outstandaien.g oxidation resistance up to
Photography 28 monly used. Silver is used as an ornamental about 1650 In vacuum, uncoated molyb
als. While the tungsten filaments for- light
Electrical 22 metal for tableware and in coins. It is also denum has a virtually unlimited life at high
Brazes,solder 10 bulbs are widely used, its most common and
Silverbatteries 3 commonly used in plating articles made of mostvaluable use isinmetal cutting,mining, temperature.
Other 8 cheapermetals, in fabricating mirrors, and in and oil drilling tools. Although tungsten can Vanadium is mainly used as an alloying ele
100 preparation of silver salts used in photogra
be used at high temperatures, an oxide fIlm ment in steel, in titanium alloys, and in some
Platinum Catalysis 60 phy. forms which is volatile above temperature of high-temperaturealloys. Inform ofV205 itis
GElleacstsrifcOaflfiling 197 Platinum. Platinum is an important contact approximately 540 ae. So, for use at ex used as acatalystforoxidationreactions(S02
Dental,medical 5 catalyst in the chemical industry e.g., oxida tremely high temperatures, tungsten parts toS03)'
Jewelry,etc. 4
Other 5 tionofammonia. Ithas also importantuses in must be coated, used ina vacuum, orbe sur Niobium. The major use ofniobium is as an
100 the electrical industry, in dentistry, in jewel rounded by a protective atmosphere. Typical alloyingelementfor steel. Italso offers lower
lery,andinlaboratoryware. uses involving protective atmospheres - or density andlowthermalneutroncross section
Gold. A large part ofthe world's gold supply vacuum - include incandescent lamp fIla
compared to other refractory metals, which
is held by governments and central banks, to 1.3.5 Refractory Metals ments, electron tube electrodes, and various makes niobiuni useful in atomic reactors. At
provide stability for paper currency, and as a typesofheatingelements. Silicidecoatingand
ordinary temperatures niobium will resist at
medium for settling international trade bal This group of metals is composed of the noble metal cladding are effective oxidation
tackbyallmineralacids,withtheexceptionof
ances. Theunitofgoldpurityiscalledkarat,it transition metals tungsten, molybdenum, nio resisting coatings, for example, cladding the
hydrofluoric acid, and it is not affected by
is 1/241.A22-karatgold,forexample,isanal bium,tantalum,titanium,zirconium,hafnium, tungstenwithaplatinumgoldalloys.
mixedacidssuchasaquaregia.
loy containing22 parts goldand 2parts other vanadium, rhenium, and chromium. All these Tungsten is resistant to many severe envi
ingredients, usually silver; ltence it contains metalshavehighmeltingpoints.Forexample, ronmentswhichreadily attackothermetals. It Tantalum. Tantalumisoneofthemostcorro
91.67% gold and8.33%silver.Alargepartis tungsten melts at 3380°e, rhenium at resists nitric, sulfuric, and hydrofluoric acids sionresistantmaterials available. Itforms sta
alsousedinjewellery,arts, indentistry, andin 3180°e, molybdenum at 261Ooe. They are at room temperatures. It is only subject to ple anodic oxide films which make excellent
corns. mainly used as alloying elements in steel but slight attack by hotalkaline solutions such as electroniccapacitors.
also areused in the elementalform. Somere potassium, sodium, and ammonium hydrox Rhenium. Rhenium has a melting point'ex
1Acaratisalsotheunitoftrade(200mg)ofdianlOnds. sist high temperature without oxidation, and ides.Tungstenalsohasgoodresistancetosev- ceeded only by tungsten, density exceeded
10 HandbookofExtractiveMetallllrgy TheEconomicClassificationofMetals 11
only by osmium, iridium, and platinum. It is 1.3.7 RadioactiveMetals Uraniwnseries Actiniumseries Thoriumseries :Z:~u+~-7::Kr+l::Ba+3~n+200MeV
unique amongrefractorymetalsinthatitdoes
J, J,
notform carbides. Itis highly desirable as an These metals have the highest atomic ::y
alloyingadditionwithotherrefractorymetals. weights in the Periodic Table starting from +4e- l~a+3e-
The addition ofrhenium greatly enhances the polonium, and include radium, actinium, tho
Uranium 238 absorbs neutrons forming
ductility and tensile strength ofthese metals rium,protactinium,uranium,andthetransura
and tlleir alloys. Rhenium alloys are gaining nium metals which do not occur in naturel. uranium 239 which is a beta emitter with a
shorthalflife;itsdaughterneptunium239also
acceptance in nuclear reactors, semiconduc They undergospontaneousnucleardisintegra j J. emitsanelectrontoformplutonium239.
tion duetotllerepulsion oftheprotons within
tors, thermocouple, gyroscopes and other
thenucleiofthoseatomsasaresultoftheirin
aerospace applications. Tungsten-rhenium al
creased number. In this process a helium ion
loys are used to surface molybdenum targets
(composed oftwo protons and two neutrons) • •
inX-ray tube manufacture. Otherrhenium al
loys (with tungsten ormolybdenum) areused is ejected. Theheliumion (called alpha parti 227Ac 228Ac
forfilaments, gridheaters,andignitorwiresin cle)possessesextraordinarycohesion. • • • Plutonium239(halflife2.4X 104years) is
photo-flashbulbs. Rhenium hasfound impor Naturally-occurring radioactive metals 230Th 227Th 228Th an alpha emitter, itundergoesfission with the
tant applications in catalystsfor reforming in form three series, each element in the series • • • emissionofseveralneutronsandcanmaintain
conjunctionwithplatinumandinselectivehy beingproducedwhentheonebeforeitdisinte 220Ra 223Ra 224Ra achainreaction. Thus, anuclearreactorusing
drogenation.Itisresistanttohydrochloricacid grates,withthesuccessiveradioactivedisinte • • • uranium as a fuel, not only produces energy,
andshowsgoodresistancetosaltwatercorro grationsstoppingwhenastableisotopeoflead butalsoproduces anothernuclearfuel. Under
is formed. The three series are formed from 222Rn 219An 220Tn certainconditionsitispossibletogeneratefis
SlOn.
uranium238, uranium235 (anisotope ofura (Radon) (Actinon) (Thoron) sionable material at arate equal to or greater
nium occurringin uranium ores·to the extent • • • than the rate ofconsumption ofthe uranium.
1.3.6 ScatteredMetals of0.7%), and thorium 232 (Figure 1.1).Dur 218po 215po 216po Suchareactorisknownas abreederreactor.
Thisgroupofmetalsandmetalloidsiscom ing their disintegration radium 226, 223, and • • • Thorium absorbs neutrons and is trans
224 are formed respectively. These disinte formedtouranium233:
posed of scandium, germanium, gallium, in 214Pb . 211Pb 212Pb
grateintumto theradioactiveinertgasradon
dium, thallium, hafnium, rhenium, selenium, • • •
222 and its isotopes radon 219 (called acti
and tellurium. They do not form minerals of non), and radon 220 (called thoron), respec 214Bi 2llBi 212Bi
their own but occurin very small amounts in
tively. They then disintegrate to different
the ores of other common metals. Thus gal
polonium isotopes. Being gases with short
limn occurs with aluminum in bauxite, sele Uranium 233 also undergoes fission; and
half lives, radon and its isotopes represent a
nium and tellurium in copper and nickel serious health hazard during the treatment of can be used to operate a breeder reactor ac
sulfide ores, etc. (Table 1.8). As a result of orescontainingradioactivemetals. cordingtothescheme:
•
processing a large tonnage ofores each year,
~U+~n-7Fissionproducts+Energy
these melals are enriched in certain fractions 210Bi
1Pota<;sium40isaveryweaknaturallyoccurringradioac +
andareusuallyrecovered. tiveelement;itemitsbetaparticles. • .........
oneneutron oneneutron
21Opo
Table1.8:Parentoresofscatteredmetals. thatiscaptured tocontinue
• by 23~ chainreaction
Metal Parentore Concentrationinore,% Majoruse
90
206Pb
Gallium Bauxite 0.01 Semiconductor ,J.
Gemmnium Zincsulfide Trace Semiconductor Figure1.1:Radioactivemetals. 23~Th
Hafnium Zirconsand Nuclearreactors,control£ods ,J.
Indium Zincsulfide Trace Semiconductor
:Z:~Pa+e
Rhenium Molybdeniteconcentratesfrom 0.07 Refractorymetal
Uranium235undergoesfissionwhenbom
porphyrycopperores 23~U+e-
barded by thermal neutrons; it breaks apart
Scandium Uraniumandthorium Trace
Selenium Coppersulfides Trace Photoelectriccells intotwosmallerelementsandatthesametime Uraniumis the baseofnuclearpowerreac
Tellurium Coppersulfides Trace emitting several neutrons and a large amount tors and nuclear weapons. Non-energy appli
llmllium Zincsulfide Trace ofenergy(Figure1.1): cations (ceramic glazes, catalysts) accountfor