Ground Penetrating Radar Theory and Applications

543 Pages·2009·13.2 MB·English

by  Harry M. Jol

G P R
ROUND ENETRATING ADAR
T A
HEORY AND PPLICATIONS
This page intentionally left blank
G P R
ROUND ENETRATING ADAR
T A
HEORY AND PPLICATIONS
Edited by
HARRY M. JOL
Amsterdam•Boston•Heidelberg•London•NewYork•Oxford
Paris•SanDiego•SanFrancisco•Singapore•Sydney•Tokyo
ElsevierScience
Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,TheNetherlands
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK
Firstedition2009
Copyright(cid:2)2009ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,or
transmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,
recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher
PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights
DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone[phone];fax[phone];
email:[e-mail]tyourrequestonlineby
visitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting
ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial
Notice
Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersons
orpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuse
oroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerial
herein.Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independent
verificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
ISBN:978-0-444-53348-7
ForinformationonallElsevierpublications
visitourwebsiteatelsevierdirect.com
PrintedinSlovenia
08091011 10987654321
Working together to grow
libraries in developing countries
www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org
C
ONTENTS
Preface xiii
Contributors xv
Part I Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) Principles 1
1 Electromagnetic Principles of Ground Penetrating Radar 3
A.P.Annan
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 GroundPenetratingRadarBasicPrinciples 5
1.2.1 Overview 5
1.2.2 Maxwell’sequations 6
1.2.3 Constitutiveequations 6
1.2.4 Materialproperties 7
1.3 WaveNatureofElectromagneticFields 8
1.3.1 Waveproperties 10
1.3.2 Groundpenetratingradarsourcenearaninterface 11
1.3.3 Reflection,refraction,andtransmissionatinterfaces 13
1.3.4 Resolutionandzoneofinfluence 14
1.3.5 Scatteringattenuation 16
1.4 SignalMeasurement 17
1.4.1 Timerangesandbandwidth 18
1.4.2 Centerfrequency 19
1.4.3 Groundpenetratingradarsignalacquisition 20
1.4.4 Characterizingsystemresponse 20
1.4.5 Recordingdynamicrange 22
1.4.6 Antennas 23
1.4.7 Antennadirectivity 24
1.4.8 Antennashielding 27
1.5 SurveyMethodology 29
1.5.1 Samplingcriteria 29
1.5.2 Groundpenetratingradarsurveys 30
1.5.3 Common-offsetreflectionsurvey 30
1.5.4 Multioffsetcommonmidpoint/wide-anglereflection
andrefractionvelocitysoundingdesign 31
1.5.5 Transilluminationsurveys 31
1.6 DataAnalysisandInterpretation 33
1.6.1 Dewow 34
1.6.2 Timegain 34
1.6.3 Deconvolution 35
1.6.4 Migration 36
v
vi Contents
1.6.5 Topographiccorrection 36
1.6.6 Two-dimensionalandthree-dimensionaldatavisualization 37
1.7 Summary 37
2 Electricaland Magnetic Propertiesof Rocks, Soils and Fluids 41
NigelJ.Cassidy
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 ElectromagneticMaterialProperties:BasicTheory 43
2.3 PermittivityandConductivity–TheElectricalParametersofDielectrics 44
2.3.1 Permittivity–" 45
2.3.2 Conductivity–(cid:2) 54
2.3.3 Permeability(cid:3)–themagneticparametersofdielectrics 55
2.4 MaterialProperties–RelationshiptoElectromagneticWaveCharacteristics 57
2.4.1 Lossfactorandskindepth 59
2.5 ThePropertiesofRealMaterials–PracticalEvaluations 60
2.6 CharacterisingtheResponseofRealMaterials 62
2.6.1 Basicmixingmodels 63
2.6.2 Volumetricandinclusion-basedmixingmodels 64
2.7 Summary 66
Acknowledgements 67
3 Ground Penetrating Radar Systems and Design 73
StevenKoppenjan
3.1 IntroductionandBackground 73
3.2 Methodology–TypesofGroundPenetratingRadar 74
3.2.1 Impulse 75
3.2.2 Sweptfrequency-modulatedcontinuouswave 75
3.2.3 Steppedfrequency-modulatedcontinuouswave 76
3.2.4 Gated,steppedfrequency-modulatedcontinuouswave 76
3.3 RadioFrequencySpecificationsandDefinitions 77
3.3.1 Dynamicrange 77
3.3.2 Bandwidth 78
3.3.3 Rangeresolution 78
3.3.4 Lateralresolution 79
3.3.5 Unambiguousrange 79
3.4 GeneralDesignCriteriaforGroundPenetratingRadar 80
3.4.1 Systemperformance 81
3.5 ImpulseGroundPenetratingRadar 81
3.5.1 Theoryofoperation:Impulseradar 81
3.5.2 Systemdesignparameters:impulseradar 84
3.5.3 Implementationofanimpulsegroundpenetratingradar 85
3.6 Continuous-WaveGroundPenetratingRadar 86
3.6.1 Theoryofoperation–stepped-frequency,continuous-waveradar 86
3.6.2 Systemdesignparameters:stepped-frequencyradar 92
3.6.3 Implementationofagated,stepped-frequency,groundpenetrating
radar 93
Contents vii
4 Antennas 99
DavidJ.Daniels
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 BasicAntennaParameters 102
4.2.1 Energytransferfromantennas 102
4.2.2 Gain 104
4.2.3 Directivity 105
4.2.4 Couplingenergyintotheground 105
4.2.5 Antennaefficiency 106
4.2.6 Sidelobesandbacklobes 106
4.2.7 Bandwidth 106
4.2.8 Polarisation–linear,elliptical,circular 107
4.2.9 Antennaphasecentre 108
4.2.10 Antennapatterns 108
4.2.11 Timesidelobesandring-down 109
4.2.12 Antennafootprint 110
4.3 AntennasforGroundPenetratingRadar 112
4.3.1 Introduction 112
4.3.2 Couplingintoadielectric 113
4.3.3 Timedomainantennas 115
4.3.4 Frequencydomainantennas 124
4.3.5 Arrayantennas 128
4.4 Summary 133
4.5 Definitions 133
5 Ground Penetrating Radar Data Processing, Modelling and Analysis 141
NigelJ.Cassidy
5.1 Introduction 141
5.2 BackgroundandPracticalPrinciplesofGroundPenetratingRadar
DataProcessing 143
5.3 GroundPenetratingRadarDataProcessing:DevelopingGoodPractice 145
5.4 BasicGroundPenetratingRadarDataProcessingSteps 148
5.4.1 Data/traceeditingand‘rubber-band’interpolation 148
5.4.2 Dewowfiltering 150
5.4.3 Time-zerocorrection 150
5.4.4 Filtering 152
5.4.5 Deconvolution 158
5.4.6 Velocityanalysisanddepthconversion 158
5.4.7 Elevationortopographiccorrections 159
5.4.8 Gainfunctions 161
5.4.9 Migration 164
5.4.10 Advancedimagingandanalysistools 166
5.4.11 Attributeanalysis 167
5.4.12 Numericalmodelling 168
5.5 Processing,ImagingandVisualisation:ConcludingRemarks 171
Acknowledgements 172
viii Contents
Part II Environmental Applications 177
6 Soils, Peatlands,and Biomonitoring 179
JamesA.DoolittleandJohnR.Butnor
6.1 Introduction 179
6.2 Soils 180
6.2.1 Soilpropertiesthataffecttheperformance
ofgroundpenetratingradar 180
6.2.2 Soilsuitabilitymapsforgroundpenetratingradar 181
6.2.3 Groundpenetratingdataandsoilsurveys 185
6.2.4 Usesofgroundpenetratingradarinorganicsoilsandpeatlands 190
6.3 Biomonitoring 192
7 The ContributionofGround Penetrating Radar to Water
Resource Research 203
LeeSlaterandXavierComas
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 Petrophysics 206
7.3 HydrostratigraphicCharacterization 209
7.4 Distribution/ZonationofFlowandTransportParameters 214
7.5 MoistureContentEstimation 217
7.6 MonitoringDynamicHydrologicalProcesses 224
7.6.1 Recharge/moisturecontentinthevadosezone 225
7.6.2 Watertabledetection/monitoring 228
7.6.3 Solutetransportinfractures 229
7.6.4 Studiesofthehyporheiccorridor 231
7.6.5 Studiesoftherhizosphere 232
7.6.6 Carbongasemissionsfromsoils 232
7.7 Conclusions 237
8 Contaminant Mapping 247
J.D.Redman
8.1 Introduction 247
8.2 ContaminantTypes 248
8.3 ElectricalPropertiesofContaminatedRockandSoil 249
8.3.1 ElectricalpropertiesofNAPLs 249
8.3.2 ElectricalpropertiesofsoilandrockwithNAPLcontamination 250
8.3.3 Biodegradationeffects 253
8.3.4 Inorganics 253
8.4 TypicalDistributionofContaminants 254
8.4.1 DNAPL 254
8.4.2 LNAPL 255
8.4.3 Inorganics 255
8.4.4 Saturatedandunsaturatedzone 256
8.5 GPRMethodology 256
Contents ix
8.6 DataProcessingandInterpretation 257
8.6.1 Visualization 257
8.6.2 Traceattributes 257
8.6.3 Datadifferencing 257
8.6.4 AVOanalysis 258
8.6.5 Detectionbasedonfrequency-dependentproperties 258
8.6.6 QuantitativeestimatesofNAPL 258
8.7 CaseStudies 259
8.7.1 ControlledDNAPLinjection 260
8.7.2 ControlledLNAPLinjection 262
8.7.3 Accidentalspillsites 262
8.7.4 Leachateandwastedisposalsitecharacterization 264
8.8 Summary 265
Terms forGlossary 269
Part III Earth Science Applications 271
9 Ground Penetrating Radar inAeolian Dune Sands 273
CharlieBristow
9.1 Introduction 274
9.2 SandDunes 274
9.3 SurveyDesign 277
9.3.1 Linespacing 277
9.3.2 Stepsize 277
9.3.3 Orientation 278
9.3.4 Surveydirection 278
9.3.5 Verticalresolution 278
9.4 Topography 279
9.4.1 Topographicsurveys 280
9.4.2 Topographiccorrection 281
9.4.3 Apparentdip 281
9.5 ImagingSedimentaryStructuresandDuneStratigraphy 281
9.6 RadarFacies 282
9.7 RadarStratigraphyandBoundingSurfaces 283
9.8 AeolianBoundingSurfaces 285
9.8.1 Reactivationsurfaces 285
9.8.2 Superpositionsurfaces 285
9.8.3 Interdunesurfaces 286
9.9 DuneAgeandMigration 288
9.10 StratigraphicAnalysis 288
9.11 AncientAeolianSandstones 290
9.12 Three-DimensionalImages 290
9.13 PedogenicAlterationandEarlyDiagenesis 291
9.13.1 Evaporites 291
9.13.2 Environmentalnoise 291
9.13.3 Diffractions 293