Fracking : fabrication of functional nanoshells

246 Pages·2015·6.169 MB·English

by  Ronald Hester, Roy M Harrison

Fracking
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ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
EDITORS:
R.E.Hester,UniversityofYork,UK
1 R.M.Harrison,UniversityofBirmingham,UK
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0 P.Crutzen,Max-Planck-Institutfu¨rChemie,Germany,S.J.deMora,PlymouthMarineLabora-
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26 tory,UK,G.Eduljee,SITA,UK,L.Heathwaite,LancasterUniversity,UK,S.Holgate,University
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7 ofSouthampton,UK,P.K.Hopke,ClarksonUniversity,USA,SirJohnHoughton,Meteorological
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78 Office, UK, P. Leinster, Environment Agency, UK, J. Lester, Imperial College of Science,
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9/ TechnologyandMedicine,UK,P.S.Liss,SchoolofEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofEast
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0 Anglia, UK, D. Mackay, Trent University, Canada, A. Proctor, Food Science Department,
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0. UniversityofArkansas,USA,D.Taylor,WCAEnvironmentLtd.,UK.
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c. 1:MininganditsEnvironmentalImpact 19:SustainabilityandEnvironmentalImpact
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s.r 2:WasteIncinerationandtheEnvironment ofRenewableEnergySources
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p:// 4:VolatileOrganicCompoundsinthe 21:SustainabilityinAgriculture
htt Atmosphere 22:ChemicalsintheEnvironment:Assessing
on 5:AgriculturalChemicalsandthe andManagingRisk
14 Environment 23:AlternativestoAnimalTesting
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2 6:ChlorinatedOrganicMicropollutants 24:Nanotechnology
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sh Generation 30:EcosystemServices
bli 12:EndocrineDisruptingChemicals 31:SustainableWater
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14:CausesandEnvironmentalImplications 33:MarinePollutionandHumanHealth
ofIncreasedUV-BRadiation 34:EnvironmentalImpactsofModern
15:FoodSafetyandFoodQuality Agriculture
16:AssessmentandReclamationof 35:SoilsandFoodSecurity
ContaminatedLand 36:ChemicalAlternativesAssessments
17:GlobalEnvironmentalChange 37:WasteasaResource
18:EnvironmentalandHealthImpactofSolid 38:GeoengineeringoftheClimateSystem
WasteManagementActivities 39:Fracking
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ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
EDITORS:R.E.HESTERANDR.M.HARRISON
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05 Preface
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7 The depletion of reserves of conventional natural gas has led to the devel-
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39/ jection of high pressure water containing various chemicals and sand in
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0.1 order to release unconventional gas from underground shale deposits.
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oi: Hydraulic fracturing of shales to release the trapped gas has become
g | d known as ‘fracking’. The technology has been developed in the USA in re-
or cent years where it has been applied on a commercial scale and is cred-
c.
s.rs ited with many benefits, including lowered energy costs and increased
ub national security associated with reduced dependence on imports of oil
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p:// and gas. However, this development has not been without controversy.
htt Contamination of water supplies, causing minor earthquakes and contrib-
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o uting to climate change are among the accusations leveled at the fracking
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01 industry.
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11:1on 19 hsoomweevceoru,naltsroieas.reThviegUorKougsolvyedrnembaetnedthaansdghivaevneibtseesntrojundggseudpupnoartccbeuptttahbelreebiys
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e a powerful environmental movement opposing the development and a
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bli growing list of countries that have effectively banned fracking, including
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P FranceandGermany.Thereasonsunderlyingthecontroversyareexploredin
detail in this book, with contributions from all sides of the argument and
with an international and expert authorship.
The book opens with an introduction and overview of the shale gas de-
velopmentwrittenbyPeterHardyoftheUKInstitutionofGasEngineersand
Managers. The geological requirements and the technology of deep hori-
zontaldrillingaredescribedinconsiderabledetail,asaretheadditivesused
in the water: chemicals to modify pH, surface tension and viscosity, for ex-
ample, and sand to prop open the fissures in the shale rock caused by in-
jectionoffluidathighpressure.Wellsaredrilledverticallythroughtherock
strata, including those bearing water (the ‘water table’), to reach shale de-
posits at depths of up to several kilometers. Multiple horizontal channels
IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnology,39
Fracking
EditedbyR.E.HesterandR.M.Harrison
rTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2015
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
v
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vi Preface
thatcanextendafurther1–1.5kmarethendrilledintotheshale.Manysuch
wells are usually required in each location, the number of multi-well pads
being typically 9 per square mile in the USA. Thus there is considerable
above-ground activity associated with fracking, in addition to drilling, with
storageoflarge quantities ofbothcleanand contaminatedwater andwater
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6 Wallace Tyner and his colleagues from the Dept. of Agricultural Eco-
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7 nomicsatPurdueUniversityexaminetheeconomicimpactsofshaleoiland
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7 gas in the USA in Chapter 2. Using economic modeling, they conclude that
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39/ theshaleboomwillhaveresultedina3.5%increaseinGDPovertheperiod
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0.1 2008–2035, coupled with welfare benefits and employment gains. These
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oi: gains depend, however, on the restriction of gas exports and are accom-
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g | panied by higher emissions.
or Iain Scotchman has written on the important subject of exploration for
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s.rs unconventional hydrocarbons in Chapter 3. As an industry insider working
ub for Statoil, though writing here in a personal capacity, he describes the
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htt timated ultimate recovery factors are given for both biogenic and thermo-
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4 o genic shales and the different structures of the so-called hybrid reservoirs
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0 from which shale (‘tight’) oil may be extracted also are discussed. Areas of
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e JohnBroderickandRuthWoodoftheTyndallCentreforClimateChange
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bli Research at the University of Manchester, UK, consider the climate change
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target for restricting greenhouse gas emissions to levels needed to avoid
dangerousclimatechange,definedandagreedasmorethan21Cincreasein
global mean surface temperature above pre-industrial levels, militates
againstshalegas.Theremaybeacaseforitsuseasa‘transitionfuel’butthe
US experience indicates that even this is unlikely and investment in shale-
gasexplorationandassociatedgasinfrastructureis,ineffect,likelytobean
investment in a stranded asset.
The hydrogeological aspects of shale gas extraction in the UK are the
subject of Chapter 5 by Robert Ward and colleagues from the British Geo-
logical Survey. Given that the areas likely to be exploited for shale gas are
overlain in many cases by aquifers used for drinking water supply and for
supportingbaseflowtorivers,thevulnerabilityofgroundwaterandthewider
water environment must be taken very seriously. Experience from the US is
not encouraging in that many incidences of contamination have been re-
ported.Thisexperienceneedstoinformariskmanagementstrategyforthe
UK industry if the potential problems are to be avoided.
View Online
Preface vii
In Chapter 6 Alan Randall, Professor of Agricultural and Resource Eco-
nomics at the University of Sydney, Australia, explores the economic, en-
vironmental and policy issues associated with the recovery of gas from coal
seams. Although dewatering is the main method used, fracking often is re-
quired at least in the later stages of gas extraction and the associated en-
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7 The prospects for shale gas development in China are examined by Shu
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7 Jiang of the University of Utah, USA, in Chapter 7. China has the largest
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or ernment is providing strong financial and policy support for this develop-
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s.rs ment but, in addition to the environmental problems encountered
ub elsewhere, difficult geological and water resource conditions need to be
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htt ThefinalchapterisbyTonyBosworthofFriendsoftheEarth,whoclaims
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4 o that shale gas is not only unconventional but also is ‘‘unburnable and un-
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0 wanted’’. A well-documented case is made for the environmental concerns
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11:1on 19 neIwnasbulemsmanadry,retdhuiscebdoowkasptree.sents a critical but balanced and authoritative
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through factual and evidence-based examination of the arguments both in
favour of it and against it. The book should be required reading for all
concerned with future energy policy development and will be of great value
toanyonelookingforanin-depthaccountofthissubjectwhichhasalready
attracted so much attention in the popular news media. Students under-
takingcoursesinscience,engineeringandenvironmentalsciencewillfindit
ofparticularvalue,aswillprofessionalsworkingintheenergyindustries,the
water industry, in land management and climate change.
R. E. Hester
R. M. Harrison
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09 Contents
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7 Editors xv
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doi: Introduction and Overview: the Role of Shale Gas in Securing Our
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sc. Peter Hardy
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htt 1.1 History 3
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7:10. August 22..23 EPrxopdlouictatitoionn of Reserves 1228
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7 Predictions are Hard, Especially about the Future 39
Disclaimer 41
References 41
ShaleGasBoom,TradeandEnvironmentalPolicies:GlobalEconomic
and Environmental Analyses in a Multidisciplinary Modeling
Framework 46
Farzad Taheripour, Wallace E. Tyner and Kemal Sarica
1 Introduction 47
IssuesinEnvironmentalScienceandTechnology,39
Fracking
EditedbyR.E.HesterandR.M.Harrison
rTheRoyalSocietyofChemistry2015
PublishedbytheRoyalSocietyofChemistry,www.rsc.org
ix
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x Contents
2 Literature Review and Background 47
3 The GTAP Model 48
4 GTAP Model and Database Modifications 51
4.1 Natural Gas in the GTAP Database 51
9 4.2 Firms’ Demand for Energy Items 52
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c.or 6.7 Emissions 65
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on Exploration for Unconventional Hydrocarbons:
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1 Shale Gas and Shale Oil 69
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7:10. August Iain C. Scotchman
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ed 2.1 Shale Gas 74
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3.1 Organic Richness 76
3.2 Porosity 77
3.3 Permeability: Methods – Traditional Core Plug and
Crushed Core 81
3.4 Gas Storage: Free versus Adsorbed Gas 83
3.5 Mineralogy 84
3.6 Fractures and Faulting 86
3.7 Confining Elements: ‘‘Flow-Unit’’ Concept 87
3.8 Resource and Reserve Evaluation 87
4 Exploration and Exploitation of Shale Reservoirs 88
5 Geological/Environmental Considerations 93
5.1 Hydraulic Fracturing (Completion) 93
5.2 Groundwater Issues 93
5.3 Completion or ‘‘Frac’’ Fluids 96
6 Shale Resources – USA versus Europe and the Rest of the World 96
7 Conclusions 98
References 99