Table Of Content

FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT RIGHTS GUARANTEED CONTENTS Page Section1.RightsGuaranteed ................................................................................................... 1839 TheFourteenthAmendmentandStates’Rights ............................................................. 1839 CitizensoftheUnitedStates ............................................................................................ 1839 PrivilegesorImmunities ................................................................................................... 1842 DueProcessofLaw ............................................................................................................ 1846 Generally ...................................................................................................................... 1846 Definitions .................................................................................................................... 1847 “Person” ................................................................................................................. 1847 “Property”andPolicePower ............................................................................... 1849 “Liberty” ................................................................................................................ 1850 TheRiseandFallofEconomicSubstantiveDueProcess:Overview .................... 1851 RegulationofLaborConditions ................................................................................. 1857 LibertyofContract ............................................................................................... 1857 LawsRegulatingWorkingConditionsandWages ............................................ 1862 Workers’CompensationLaws ............................................................................. 1864 CollectiveBargaining ........................................................................................... 1865 RegulationofBusinessEnterprises:PriceControls ................................................ 1868 TypesofBusinessesThatMaybeRegulated .................................................... 1868 SubstantiveReviewofPriceControls ................................................................ 1871 EarlyLimitationsonReview .............................................................................. 1873 HistoryoftheValuationQuestion ...................................................................... 1876 RegulationofPublicUtilitiesandCommonCarriers .............................................. 1879 InGeneral ............................................................................................................. 1879 CompulsoryExpenditures:GradeCrossings,andtheLike ............................. 1880 CompellableServices ........................................................................................... 1881 ImpositionofStatutoryLiabilitiesandPenaltiesUponCommonCarriers ... 1883 RegulationofBusinesses,Corporations,Professions,andTrades .......................... 1884 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1884 LawsProhibitingTrusts,RestraintofTradeorFraud .................................... 1885 Banking,WageAssignments,andGarnishment ............................................... 1888 Insurance .............................................................................................................. 1889 MiscellaneousBusinessesandProfessions ........................................................ 1891 ProtectionofStateResources ..................................................................................... 1893 OilandGas ........................................................................................................... 1893 ProtectionofPropertyandAgriculturalCrops .................................................. 1894 Water,Fish,andGame ........................................................................................ 1895 OwnershipofRealProperty:RightsandLimitations ............................................. 1897 ZoningandSimilarActions ................................................................................. 1897 Estates,Succession,AbandonedProperty .......................................................... 1899 Health,Safety,andMorals ......................................................................................... 1901 Health ................................................................................................................... 1901 Safety .................................................................................................................... 1902 Morality ................................................................................................................. 1904 1833 1834 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED Section1.RightsGuaranteed—Continued DueProcessofLaw—Continued VestedandRemedialRights ...................................................................................... 1905 StateControloverLocalUnitsofGovernment ........................................................ 1906 TaxingPower ............................................................................................................... 1906 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1906 JurisdictiontoTax ...................................................................................................... 1910 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1910 RealProperty ........................................................................................................ 1911 TangiblePersonalty ............................................................................................. 1911 IntangiblePersonalty ........................................................................................... 1913 Transfer(Inheritance,Estate,Gift)Taxes ......................................................... 1917 CorporatePrivilegeTaxes ................................................................................... 1921 IndividualIncomeTaxes ..................................................................................... 1922 CorporateIncomeTaxes:ForeignCorporations ................................................ 1922 InsuranceCompanyTaxes .................................................................................. 1923 ProcedureinTaxation ................................................................................................. 1924 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1924 NoticeandHearinginRelationtoTaxes ........................................................... 1925 NoticeandHearinginRelationtoAssessments ............................................... 1926 CollectionofTaxes ............................................................................................... 1928 SufficiencyandMannerofGivingNotice .......................................................... 1929 SufficiencyofRemedy .......................................................................................... 1930 Laches ................................................................................................................... 1931 EminentDomain ......................................................................................................... 1931 FundamentalRights(NoneconomicSubstantiveDueProcess) ............................... 1931 DeterminingNoneconomicSubstantiveDueProcessRights ........................... 1932 Abortion ................................................................................................................ 1937 Privacy after Roe: Informational Privacy, Privacy of the Home or Personal Autonomy? ......................................................................................................... 1952 FamilyRelationships ........................................................................................... 1961 Liberty Interests of People with Mental Disabilities: Civil Commitment and Treatment .......................................................................................................... 1964 “RighttoDie” ....................................................................................................... 1967 ProceduralDueProcess:Civil ........................................................................................... 1969 Generally ...................................................................................................................... 1969 RelevanceofHistoricalUse ................................................................................ 1970 Non-JudicialProceedings .................................................................................... 1971 TheRequirementsofDueProcess ...................................................................... 1971 TheProcedureThatIsDueProcess .......................................................................... 1978 TheInterestsProtected:“Life,LibertyandProperty” ...................................... 1978 ThePropertyInterest .......................................................................................... 1979 TheLibertyInterest ............................................................................................ 1985 ProceedingsinWhichProceduralDueProcessNeedNotBeObserved ......... 1988 WhatProcessIsDue ............................................................................................ 1990 Jurisdiction .................................................................................................................. 1997 Generally ............................................................................................................... 1997 InPersonamProceedingsAgainstIndividuals .................................................. 1998 SuingOut-of-State(Foreign)Corporations ........................................................ 2001 ActionsInRem:ProceedingAgainstProperty .................................................. 2010 QuasiinRem:AttachmentProceedings ............................................................. 2011 ActionsinRem:Estates,Trusts,Corporations ................................................. 2014 Notice:ServiceofProcess .................................................................................... 2015 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED 1835 Section1.RightsGuaranteed—Continued ProceduralDueProcess:Civil—Continued PoweroftheStatestoRegulateProcedure .............................................................. 2017 Generally ............................................................................................................... 2017 CommencementofActions .................................................................................. 2018 Defenses ................................................................................................................ 2019 Costs,Damages,andPenalties ........................................................................... 2019 StatutesofLimitation ......................................................................................... 2022 BurdenofProofandPresumptions .................................................................... 2023 TrialsandAppeals ............................................................................................... 2027 ProceduralDueProcess—Criminal ................................................................................... 2028 Generally:ThePrincipleofFundamentalFairness ................................................. 2028 TheElementsofDueProcess ..................................................................................... 2029 InitiationoftheProsecution ............................................................................... 2029 ClarityinCriminalStatutes:TheVoid-for-VaguenessDoctrine ...................... 2030 Entrapment ........................................................................................................... 2036 CriminalIdentificationProcess ........................................................................... 2038 FairTrial ............................................................................................................... 2039 ProsecutorialMisconduct ..................................................................................... 2043 Proof,BurdenofProof,andPresumptions ........................................................ 2047 TheProblemoftheIncompetentorInsaneDefendant .................................... 2053 GuiltyPleas .......................................................................................................... 2057 Sentencing ............................................................................................................ 2058 CorrectiveProcess:AppealsandOtherRemedies ............................................. 2062 RightsofPrisoners ............................................................................................... 2064 ProbationandParole ........................................................................................... 2069 TheProblemoftheJuvenileOffender ............................................................... 2073 TheProblemofCivilCommitment ..................................................................... 2076 EqualProtectionoftheLaws ............................................................................................ 2078 ScopeandApplication ................................................................................................. 2078 StateAction .......................................................................................................... 2078 “Person” ................................................................................................................. 2095 “WithinItsJurisdiction” ...................................................................................... 2096 EqualProtection:JudgingClassificationsbyLaw ................................................... 2096 TheTraditionalStandard:RestrainedReview .................................................. 2097 TheNewStandards:ActiveReview ................................................................... 2102 TestingFaciallyNeutralClassificationsWhichImpactonMinorities ................... 2108 Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Po- licePower ........................................................................................................................ 2114 Taxation ........................................................................................................................ 2114 ClassificationforPurposeofTaxation ................................................................ 2115 ForeignCorporationsandNonresidents ............................................................ 2118 IncomeTaxes ........................................................................................................ 2119 InheritanceTaxes ................................................................................................. 2120 MotorVehicleTaxes ............................................................................................. 2120 PropertyTaxes ...................................................................................................... 2121 SpecialAssessment .............................................................................................. 2123 PolicePowerRegulation ............................................................................................. 2123 Classification ........................................................................................................ 2123 OtherBusinessandEmploymentRelations ............................................................. 2128 LaborRelations .................................................................................................... 2128 MonopoliesandUnfairTradePractices ............................................................. 2129 AdministrativeDiscretion ................................................................................... 2130 1836 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED Section1.RightsGuaranteed—Continued Traditional Equal Protection: Economic Regulation and Related Exercises of the Po- licePower—Continued SocialWelfare ....................................................................................................... 2131 PunishmentofCrime ........................................................................................... 2132 EqualProtectionandRace ................................................................................................ 2134 Overview ...................................................................................................................... 2134 Education ..................................................................................................................... 2135 DevelopmentandApplicationof“SeparateButEqual” ................................... 2135 Brownv.BoardofEducation .............................................................................. 2136 Brown’sAftermath ............................................................................................... 2137 ImplementationofSchoolDesegregation ........................................................... 2139 NorthernSchools:Inter-andIntradistrictDesegregation ............................... 2141 EffortstoCurbBusingandOtherDesegregationRemedies ........................... 2146 TerminationofCourtSupervision ...................................................................... 2149 Juries ............................................................................................................................ 2149 CapitalPunishment .................................................................................................... 2154 Housing ........................................................................................................................ 2154 OtherAreasofDiscrimination ................................................................................... 2155 Transportation ...................................................................................................... 2155 PublicFacilities .................................................................................................... 2156 Marriage ................................................................................................................ 2156 JudicialSystem .................................................................................................... 2157 PublicDesignation ............................................................................................... 2157 PublicAccommodations ....................................................................................... 2157 Elections .............................................................................................................. 2157 “AffirmativeAction”:RemedialUseofRacialClassifications .................................. 2158 TheNewEqualProtection ................................................................................................. 2170 ClassificationsMeritingCloseScrutiny .................................................................... 2170 AlienageandNationality ..................................................................................... 2170 Sex ......................................................................................................................... 2176 Illegitimacy .................................................................................................................. 2191 FundamentalInterests:ThePoliticalProcess .......................................................... 2196 VoterQualifications .............................................................................................. 2198 AccesstotheBallot .............................................................................................. 2202 ApportionmentandDistricting ........................................................................... 2206 CountingandWeighingofVotes ......................................................................... 2219 TheRighttoTravel ..................................................................................................... 2220 DurationalResidencyRequirements .................................................................. 2221 MarriageandFamilialRelations ............................................................................... 2224 SexualOrientation ...................................................................................................... 2226 PovertyandFundamentalInterests:TheIntersectionofDueProcessandEqual Protection ................................................................................................................. 2229 Generally ............................................................................................................... 2229 CriminalProcedure .............................................................................................. 2231 TheCriminalSentence ........................................................................................ 2233 VotingandBallotAccess ..................................................................................... 2233 AccesstoCourts ................................................................................................... 2235 EducationalOpportunity ..................................................................................... 2237 Abortion ................................................................................................................ 2239 Section2.ApportionmentofRepresentation ........................................................................... 2240 ApportionmentofRepresentation ..................................................................................... 2240 Sections3and4.DisqualificationandPublicDebt ............................................................... 2241 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED 1837 Sections3and4.DisqualificationandPublicDebt—Continued DisqualificationandPublicDebt ...................................................................................... 2242 Section5.Enforcement ............................................................................................................. 2243 Enforcement ........................................................................................................................ 2243 Generally ...................................................................................................................... 2243 StateAction ................................................................................................................. 2244 CongressionalDefinitionofFourteenthAmendmentRights ................................... 2248 RIGHTS GUARANTEED FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de- prive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT AND STATES’ RIGHTS Amendment of the Constitution during the post-Civil War Re- construction period resulted in a fundamental shift in the relationship between the Federal Government and the states. The Civil War had been fought over issues of states’ rights, particularly the right to control the institution of slavery.1 In the wake of the war, the Congress submitted, and the states ratified the Thirteenth Amend- ment (making slavery illegal), the Fourteenth Amendment (defining and granting broad rights of national citizenship), and the Fif- teenth Amendment (forbidding racial discrimination in elections). The Fourteenth Amendment was the most controversial and far- reaching of these three “Reconstruction Amendments.” CITIZENS OF THE UNITED STATES The citizenship provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment may be seen as a repudiation of one of the more politically divisive cases of the nineteenth century. Under common law, free persons born within a state or nation were citizens thereof. In the Dred Scott case,2 however, Chief Justice Taney, writing for the Court, ruled that 1“Since the 1950s most professional historians have come to agree with Lin- coln’sassertionthatslavery‘was,somehow,thecauseofthewar.’”JamesM.McPherson, Southern Comfort, THE NEWYORK REVIEW OF BOOKS (Apr. 12, 2001), quoting Lincoln’s secondinauguraladdress. 2Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). The controversy, political as well as constitutional, that this case stirred and still stirs is exemplified and ana- lyzed in the material collected in S. KUTLER, THE DRED SCOTT DECISION: LAW OR POLI- 1839 1840 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED this rule did not apply to freed slaves. The Court held that United States citizenship was enjoyed by only two classes of people: (1) white persons born in the United States as descendants of “persons, who were at the time of the adoption of the Constitution recognised as citizens in the several States, [and who] became also citizens of this new political body,” the United States ofAmerica, and (2) those who, having been “born outside the dominions of the United States,” had migrated thereto and been naturalized therein.3 Freed slaves fell into neither of these categories. The Court further held that, although a state could confer state citizenship upon whomever it chose, it could not make the recipi- ent of such status a citizen of the United States. Thus, the “Ne- gro,” as an enslaved race, was ineligible to attain United States citizenship, either from a state or by virtue of birth in the United States. Even a free man descended from a Negro residing as a free man in one of the states at the date of ratification of the Constitution was held ineligible for citizenship.4 Congress subsequently repudiated this concept of citizenship, first in section 15 of the Civil RightsAct of 18666 and then in section 1 of the Fourteenth Amendment. In doing so, Congress set aside the Dred Scott holding, and restored the traditional precepts of citizenship by birth.7 Based on the first sentence of section 1,8 the Court has held that a child born in the United States of Chinese parents who were ineligible to be naturalized themselves is nevertheless a citizen of the United States entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizen- TICS? (1967). See also DON E. FEHRENBACHER, THE DRED SCOTT CASE: ITS SIGNIFICANCE IN AMERICANLAWANDPOLITICS(1978);M.GRABER,DREDSCOTTANDTHEPROBLEMOFCONSTITU- TIONALEVIL(2006);EARLM.MALTZ,DREDSCOTTANDTHEPOLITICSOFSLAVERY(2007);Sym- posium, 150th Anniversary of the Dred Scott Decision, 82 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 1–455 (2007). 360U.S.(19How.)at406,418. 460U.S.(19How.)at404–06,417–18,419–20(1857). 5TheproposedamendmentasitpassedtheHousecontainednosuchprovision, anditwasdecidedintheSenatetoincludelanguagelikethatfinallyadopted.CONG. GLOBE, 39th Cong., 1st Sess. 2560, 2768–69, 2869 (1866). The sponsor of the lan- guage said: “This amendment which I have offered is simply declaratory of what I regard as the law of the land already, that every person born within the limits of the United States, and subject to their jurisdiction, is . . . a citizen of the United States.” Id. at 2890. The legislative history is discussed at some length in Afroyim v.Rusk,387U.S.253,282–86(1967)(JusticeHarlandissenting). 6“That all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power,excludingIndiansnottaxed,areherebydeclaredtobecitizensoftheUnited States; and such citizens, of every race and color, without regard to any previous conditionofslaveryorinvoluntaryservitude. . .shallhavethesameright[s]. . . .” Ch.31,14Stat.27. 7UnitedStatesv.WongKimArk,169U.S.649,688(1898). 8“AllpersonsbornornaturalizedintheUnitedStatesandsubjecttothejuris- diction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED 1841 ship.9 The requirement that a person be “subject to the jurisdiction thereof,” however, excludes its application to children born of diplo- matic representatives of a foreign state, children born of alien en- emies in hostile occupation,10 or children of members of Indian tribes subject to tribal laws.11 In addition, the citizenship of children born on vessels in United States territorial waters or on the high seas has generally been held by the lower courts to be determined by the citizenship of the parents.12 Citizens of the United States within the meaning of this Amendment must be natural and not artificial persons; a corporate body is not a citizen of the United States.13 In Afroyim v. Rusk,14 a divided Court extended the force of this first sentence beyond prior holdings, ruling that it withdrew from the government of the United States the power to expatriate United States citizens against their will for any reason. “[T]he Amend- ment can most reasonably be read as defining a citizenship which a citizen keeps unless he voluntarily relinquishes it. Once ac- quired, this FourteenthAmendment citizenship was not to be shifted, canceled,ordilutedatthewilloftheFederalGovernment,theStates, or any other government unit.”15 In a subsequent decision, how- 9UnitedStatesv.WongKimArk,169U.S.649(1898). 10169 U.S. at 682 (these are recognized exceptions to the common-law rule of acquiredcitizenshipbybirth). 11169U.S.at680–82;Elkv.Wilkins,112U.S.94,99(1884). 12UnitedStatesv.Gordon,25Fed.Cas.1364(C.C.S.D.N.Y.1861)(No.15,231); InreLookTinSing,21F.905(C.C.Cal.1884);LamMowv.Nagle,24F.2d316(9th Cir.1928). 13Insurance Co. v. New Orleans, 13 Fed. Cas. 67 (C.C.D. La. 1870). Not being citizensoftheUnitedStates,corporationsaccordinglyhavebeendeclaredunableto claim the protection of that clause of the FourteenthAmendment that secures the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States against abridgment by statelegislation.OrientIns.Co.v.Daggs,172U.S.557,561(1869).Thisconclusion was in harmony with the earlier holding in Paul v. Virginia, 75 U.S. (8 Wall.) 168 (1869), to the effect that corporations were not within the scope of the privileges andimmunitiesclauseofstatecitizenshipsetoutinArticleIV,§2.SeealsoSelover, Bates&Co.v.Walsh,226U.S.112,126(1912);BereaCollegev.Kentucky,211U.S. 45 (1908); Liberty Warehouse Co. v. Burley Growers’ Coop. Marketing Ass’n,, 276 U.S.71,89(1928);Grosjeanv.AmericanPressCo.,297U.S.233,244(1936). 14387 U.S. 253 (1967). Though the Court had previously upheld the involun- tary expatriation of a woman citizen of the United States during her marriage to a foreign citizen in Mackenzie v. Hare, 239 U.S. 299 (1915), the subject first received extended judicial treatment in Perez v. Brownell, 356 U.S. 44 (1958), in which the Court, by a five-to-four decision, upheld a statute denaturalizing a native-born citizen for having voted in a foreign election. For the Court, Justice Frankfurter rea- sonedthatCongress’spowertoregulateforeignaffairscarriedwithittheauthority to sever the relationship of this country with one of its citizens to avoid national implication in acts of that citizen which might embarrass relations with a foreign nation.Id.at60–62.ThreeofthedissentersdeniedthatCongresshadanypowerto denaturalize. See discussion of “Expatriation” under Article I, supra. In the years beforeAfroyim,aseriesofdecisionshadcurbedcongressionalpower. 15Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 262–63 (1967). The Court went on to say, “It is true that the chief interest of the people in giving permanence and security to 1842 AMENDMENT 14—RIGHTS GUARANTEED ever, the Court held that persons who were statutorily naturalized by being born abroad of at least oneAmerican parent could not claim the protection of the first sentence of section 1 and that Congress could therefore impose a reasonable and non-arbitrary condition subsequent upon their continued retention of United States citizenship.16 Between these two decisions is a tension that should call forth further litigation efforts to explore the meaning of the citizenship sentence of the Fourteenth Amendment. PRIVILEGES OR IMMUNITIES Unique among constitutional provisions, the clause prohibiting state abridgement of the “privileges or immunities” of United States citizens was rendered a “practical nullity” by a single decision of the Supreme Court issued within five years of its ratification. In the Slaughter-House Cases,17 the Court evaluated a Louisiana statute that conferred a monopoly upon a single corporation to engage in the business of slaughtering cattle. In determining whether this statute abridged the “privileges” of other butchers, the Court frustrated the aims of the most aggressive sponsors of the privileges or immunitiesClause.AccordingtotheCourt,thesesponsorshadsought to centralize “in the hands of the Federal Government large pow- ers hitherto exercised by the States” by converting the rights of the citizens of each state at the time of the adoption of the Fourteenth AmendmentintoprotectedprivilegesandimmunitiesofUnitedStates citizenship. This interpretation would have allowed business to de- velop unimpeded by state interference by limiting state laws “abridg- ing” these privileges. According to the Court, however, such an interpretation would have “transfer[red] the security and protection of all the civil rights . . . to the Federal Government, . . . to bring within the power of Congress the entire domain of civil rights heretofore belonging ex- clusively to the States,” and would “constitute this court a per- petual censor upon all legislation of the States, on the civil rights of their own citizens, with authority to nullify such as it did not citizenship in the Fourteenth Amendment was the desire to protect Negroes. . . . This undeniable purpose of the FourteenthAmendment to make citizenship of Ne- groes permanent and secure would be frustrated by holding that the government can rob a citizen of his citizenship without his consent by simply proceeding to act underanimpliedgeneralpowertoregulateforeignaffairsorsomeotherpowergen- erallygranted.”Fourdissenters,JusticesHarlan,Clark,Stewart,andWhite,contro- verted the Court’s reliance on the history and meaning of the Fourteenth Amend- mentandreassertedJusticeFrankfurter’spreviousreasoninginPerez.Id.at268. 16Rogers v. Bellei, 401 U.S. 815 (1971). This, too, was a five-to-four decision, with Justices Blackmun, Harlan, Stewart, and White, and Chief Justice Burger in themajority,andJusticesBlack,Douglas,Brennan,andMarshalldissenting. 1783U.S.(16Wall.)36,71,77–78(1873).

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41 See Graham, The “Conspiracy Theory” of the Fourteenth Amendment, 47 YALE. L. J. 371 (1938). 42 Munn v. 44 As to the natural persons protected by the due process clause, these include all human beings . recognition of the interest through positive law, an approach contrary to previous. 1850.

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