Final Book.pmd

119 Pages·2015·0.79 MB·English

1
1
Military Status of Women As
Depicated In Mahabharata
*Dr. Yashvir Singh
Abstract
Gender study is a new trend in social sciences started a few decades
ago. Women along with men have contributed a lot in the overall
development of society. In patriarchal society the scope of women"s
active role in any sphere got marginalized. But as she is the counterpart
of man, she plays important role in the development of society. So, it
has become essential to study her problems and position. Moreover, the
best way to appreciate any civilization and to find its limitations is to
study the position of women in it. The position of women in any society
is a true index of its development. Hence, the gender studies become
very important aspect of social sciences today. In the present paper an
attempt has been made to throw light on the military status of women
on the basis of the epic Mahabharata.
The Mahabharata is the most valuable product of the entire literature of
ancient India. It incorporates rich data regarding religion, mythology, legends,
philosophy, customs and practices and social institutions. The importance of the
epic is proved by the fact that it is regarded as Kavya, Itihas, Smriti, Dharmasashtra,
Arthashastra and kamshastra as well. The epic has influenced our literature, art,
social institutions and our behaviour as well by providing moral and social codes.
Without entering any debate regarding the date and authorship of the epic, the
close examination of the data of epic represents the culture of our country from
400 B.C. to 200 A.D.
In ancient India women were not considered capable of war fighting perhaps
due to their physio-biological reasons. But we have examples which show that
women directly or indirectly participated in war like activities. The Vedic literature
Note- Research paper Received in July 2015 and Reviewed in September 2015.
*Associate. Professor. in History, J.V.M.G.R.R. College, Charkhi Dadri
(Bhiwani), Haryana.
2 Dr. Yashvir Singh Military Status of Women As Depicated..... 3
gives references which prove that women were army leaders,1 they were trained the state apparatus becomes more complex. Following are some reasons which
in archery2 and could suppress their apponents.3 Altekar cites example of queens hampered their role and status. Firstly, The increasing trend of child marriage
who acted as regents, it implies that some sort of military and administrative training suffered their education specially military training a lot. At first she was religiously
was given to the women.4 Similar view is expressed by Vajpai that military training degraded and subsequently her participation in public life decreased. Secondly,
was given to women since very early times.5 Mazumdar pointed out that the word no political thinker of time like Manu, Kautilya and Sukra recommended them for
Shakttiki (a spear bearer lady) mentioned in Patanjali"s Mahabhasya is an indirect states duty of importance. Manu opined that women divulge secrets of the state
evidence that the art of war was taught at least to some ladies.6 and are incapable of offering any sound advice.19 He added that at the time of
Indra states that women provided accompany to men into the chases. Further, consolation the idiots, the dumb, the deaf, the blind, aged men and women should
he states that some women sat on chariots, some on horses and some even on be removed by the King. 20 Similarly, Kautilya warned the king not confide in his
elephants fully equipped with weapons of every kind as they were going on queen greatly and advised him to keep the queen under strict vigil.21 The view
campaigns.7 This evidence shows that women were not only trained in the art of recorded in the epic are not much different from those of Manu, Sukra and Kautilya
war but also participated in wars. Similarly, Altekar observes that the queen of it is advised that those should no humped backed person, no lame, no dwarft, no
Massag was directing the attack against Alexander when her husband was killed women where the king holds the consulation.22 Hence in this way the public opinion
in the battle.8 was mobilized against participation of women in state"s business. Thirdly, the
In Ramayana, Kaikeyi, the youngest wife of Dasharatha accompanied her physcio-biological reason also minimized their role, because power was deciding
husband in an army campaign against the asuras. Furnishing a good common factor on those days. The epic has no reference of any formal military training for
sense and knowledge of tact"s of war, she saved the life of her husband. 9 In the women yet some war likes activities of women find mention in the epic. However,
Mahabharata some references are found which show that women had some sort they correspond to a very early society. As a whole the part played by women in
of training of war and its ancielary sciences. At one place Renu, the wife of sage military activities was limited to some exceptional cases.
Jamdangni was helping her husband when he was practicing archery. 10 Gandhari
criticized the foul method of war used by Bhima in killing Duryodhana.11 This
indicates that Gandhari knew the rules to be followed in war. Subhdra is described References
as a skillful chariot driver12 which is an ancillary art of war. The Mahabharata
1. Atharveda, 1.2.7.4, Shripad Sharma (Ed), Audhnagar, 1938
also declares at one place that women can fight in the castles.13 The verse allows
2. Ibid., 1.27.2
them to fight at least in side the fort if not in an battle field. We have already cited 3. Rig-Veda, 10.159.5, Chokhamba Series, Varansi, 1968,
the example of Kartikeya or Sakands who went to fight with asuras with seven 4. Altekar, A.S., The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, Banaras, 1956, P. 21
ganas of mothers.14 Here, Hopkins opines that the mothers stand for adult women 5. A.B. Vajpai, Hindu Rajya Shastra, New Delhi, 1947, p. 286
6. R.C. Mazumdar (ed.) The Age of Imperial Unity, Bombay, 1951, p. 503
who could take part in the battle.15 He further added that this evidence of the
7. Indra, Status of Women in Ancient India, Lahore, 1940, p. 152
Mahabharata represented very primitive society is before division of labour
8 Altekar, A.S., op.cit. p. 187
between men and women, when ganas of women fought in the batile field along
9. Ramayana, 2.9.11-16
those of men. 16 Hopkins seems to be right in his observation because no such 10. Mbh. (GP), 13.95.7
example is found in the epic where women took part in the Great War although 11. Mbh., 11.13.17-19
they were present in the camps attached to the battle field.17 Moreover; Draupadi 12. Mbh. (K), 1.243.12
13. Mbh., 2.13.51
offered no resistance when she was adducted by Jayadratha. 18 She was helpless
14. Mbh., 9.46.29
because she had no such type of training in defense.
15. E.W. Hopkins, The Great Epic of India, New Delhi, 1972, p. 134
Besides, the direct role played by women in military activites their indirect
16. Ibid., p. 135
role in such activities can also be verified from the epic. We find that in the 17. Mbh. 5.49.53
Mahabharata, marriage of Arjuna with Subhadra, Ulupi, Draupadi and Chitrangada 18. Mbh., 2.252.24
helped the Pandavas because the most of the relatives of both the parties in the 19. Manu, Calcutta, 1932, 7.55
20. Ibid., 7.56
Great War fought in favour of their relatives. We also know that Bimbisara
21. Arthashastra, R. Shamashstri (Ed.), Mysore, 1929, 1.16
strengthened his empire by matrimonial alliances with Koshal, Vaisali and Madra.
22. Mbh., 12.73.75
From the above discussion it is quite clear that role of women in military
• • •
sphere was meagre and gradually it decreased. It became more circumscribed as
4 Puri Kushna Coins 5
the Singhbhum district. In 19124the Collector of Balasore sent 910 copper coins
of so-called Puri Kushana type to the authorities of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
and they are now preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, In 19235 a hoard of
copper coins of Kanishka and Huvishka and a large number of Kushana imitations
were found at Bhajakia in the Panchpir sub-divison of the Mayurbhanj district. In
2
his History of Orissa, R.D. Banerji6 refers to a hoard of 282 coins, out of which
170 were of the imitation series and 112 of the Imperial Kushanas, the recently
Puri Kushna Coins
discovered in the Mayurbhanj district. In 19347 nearly 135 Kushana coins and
their imitations were discovered from Sitabhinji. A similar find8 of the Kushana
*Dr. Ashok Kumar imitations along with the Imperial Kushana coins was discovered at Viratgarh in
Mayurbhanj district. In 19399 105 Kushana imitations were found at Nuagaon
near Bhanjakia in the Mayurbhanj district. Another hoard of the Kushana coins
Abstract
and their imitations, numbering 1261 was discovered from Bhajkia in the
The Puri-Kushana coins can be also taken to be belonging to the fourth Mayurbhanj district in 1963.10 B.Nath11 is stated to have discovered a hoard of the
century A.D. The Kushana coins although were used in Orissa initially Kushana coins and their limitations near the foot of the Kayema hill in the Jayepore
the supply of the same coins gradually decreased. So it was found that sub-division of the Cuttack district.
minting of the crude imitations of Kushana copper coins were It is clear that the Kushana coins were found in Mayurbhanj, Kenojhar,
undertaken. Some interesting facts about the political history of the Cuttack, Puri and Ganjam districts of Orissa. Keyema hoard exclusively contains
region could also be derived. For example the rise of Murundas and the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka. But in the hoards found at Bhanjkia and
their dominance; the rule of Mathra"s after eliminating Kanishka"s Viratgarh and Manikpatna the Kushana coins were found in association with the
influence in region. This information from a study of the coins apart so-called Puri-Kushana coins.12 However, the Kushana coins would have been
from literary sources is valuable because and details of the political current in Orissa for a long period before they were imitated in the form of Puei-
history of the period have been obtained from a study of Bhadrak Kushana coins towards the third or fourth century of the Christian era. It is true
inscriptions. We notice that by enlarged Puri- Kushana coins or crude- that most of the Kushana coins are not found independent of the Puri Kushana
imitations of copper Kushana coins. coins, yet, we need not presume that the Kushana coins were current only at a
It is well known that quite a large number of the Kushana and the so-called time when the Kushana empire had ceased to exist. It seems probable that the
Puri Kushana coins have been discovered from different parts of Orrisa. The second Kushana Empire extended as far as Orissa among the reigns of Kanishka and
series of coins, viz., the coins or Puri-Kushana group, are sometimes designated Huvishka. No coins of Vasudeva have been so far known in any hoard in
by the numismatists as the Oriya-Kushana, but the unsuitability of such appellation Orissa.13Possibly Orissa was lost by Vasudeva by the middle of the second century
is clear in view of the fact that the circulation of these coins as indicated by their A.D. But at the same time, it seems that provincial governors, appointed by the
provenance, was not confined to Puri or Orissa alone, but extended far and wide. Kushanas in different parts of Orissa, asserted their independence at the fall of the
Until a more suitable term is coined, it is safe to describe them simply as the empire and continued the use of the coins of their erstwhile masters.
imitation Kushana coins since they betray Kushana influence. As days elapsed the supply of Kushana coins gradually diminished.
The attention of the scholars towards the Kushana coins and their imitations Consequently there was the minting of the imitations of Kushana copper coins
in Orissa was first drawn by Elliot1 who studied a hoard of such coins discovered which are found in Bengal, Bihar and Orisssa.14 In course of the archaeological
in the neighbourhood of Purushottampur in the Ganjam district in 1858.2 In 1893 excavations at Sisupalgarh near Bhubaneswar,15a gold coin bearing the motif of
another hoard containing 548 coins was discovered near Manikranta in Puri district. Vasudeva I was discovered. On strati graphical basis the coins has been assigned
In 19173 some 363 coins were found on the northern shape of the Rakha hills in to the third century A.D.16The legend on the coins has been read by A.S. Altekar17as
Maharajarajadhas Dharma dama dharasa. He has suggested that Dharma
Damadharamay well have been a Jain and belonged to Murunda family, which
Note - Research Paper Received inJuly 2015 and Reviewed in September 2015.
may have ruled a portion of Bihar and also of Orissa.
*Asssistant. Professor in History, Govt. College Mokhra, Distt- Rohtak, Thus, we find that attempts have already been made by scholars to establish
Haryana the theory of Murunda supremacy in Orissa. But the conclusions are based on
6 Dr. Ashok Kumar Puri Kushna Coins 7
hypothetical considerations. Maharaja Surasarmma as Panigarhi supposes, was Reverse : Figure with right arm curved downwards; left arm raised; boots
probably a subordinate under a Murunda king, but the king himself does not refer curved upwards.
to his overload in the record. Again Guhasiva who is supposed to have issued
References
Puri-Kushana coins, is only known to us from literature. Dharma Damdhara is
also supposed to be Murunda chief on purely hypothetical consideration. 1. The Madras Journal of Literature and science, edited by the committee of the Madras
It may be noted in this context that after the fall of the great Kushana empire Literacy Society and Auxiliary Asiatic Society, 1858, pp. 75-78.
2. Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1895, pp. 61 ff.
sometime after A.D. 230 or 240 the Kushana chiefs, knowing history as the later
3. Walsh, E.H.C., Puri Kushana coins, Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research society. Vol.
Kushanas, ruled over the Punjab region for about a century. There also we find a
V , PP 173
large number of coins which are debased imitations of those of the great Kushana
4. Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India 1924-25, p. 130.
Kings. It was with the rise of Samudragupta that Daivaputra, obviously Kushana 5. Ibid., p. 132.
chief of the Punjab region submitted before the Guptas. In the same analogy we 6. Banerji, R.D., History of Oriss, I, pp. 111-15.
are inclined to believe that even after the fall of the Great Kushanas the Kushana 7. Ramachandran, T.M., Finds of Puri Kushan or Oriya. Kushan coins from Sitabhanji
.Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Vol. XII, 1951, PD. 69-72
chiefs continued to circulate the so-called "Puri-Kushana" coins in Orissa. It was
8. Ibid., p.124
the rise of Satrubhanja that brought about the fall of the "Devaputras" in hundreds
9. Ibid, IX, P.107.
of battles in the northern and north western part of Orissa.
10. The Orissa Historical Research Journal, Vol-II, P.85
11. Ibid., PP.84 ff.
12. An imitation gold coin bearing the motif Vasudeva I has been found at Sisupalgarh.
13. Ibid.
14. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Vol. XXVIII (Numismatic supplement). P.12
15. Journal of the Numismatic Society Of India Vol XII, P.107
16. Journal of the Bihar & Orissa Research society Vol. V. P.73.
17. Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Vol. XII, P.I
• • •
1. Metal : Copper Weight : 10.15 gms Size 2.38 cm.
Provinance : Village PindraBera
Obverse : Figure with right arm curved down wards; left arm raised, boot
curved upward.
Reverse : Figure with right arm curved down wards and left arm raised;boots
curved upwards.
2. Metal : Copper Weight : 10.09 gms Size : 2.33 cms
Provinance : Bhilangi
Obverse : Figure with right arm downwards; left arm raised; boots curved
upwards.
8 Significance of Metta, Karuna, Mudita..... 9
to be almost natural and spontaneous. It is equally strange that every vice possesses
its opposite sterling virtue, which does not however appear to be so normal and
automatic, though still within the range of all.
The Virtue of Metta: -The first virtue as per the Buddhist philosophy isMetta
which is called "Maitri"in Sanskrit. The Pali term metta means goodwill; loving
3
kindness, benevolence and universal love are suggested as the best renderings.
The antithesis of metta is anger, ill-will, hatred, or aversion. Metta cannot co-exist
"Significance of Metta, Karuna,
with anger or vengeful conduct.It means that which softens one"s heart, or the
Mudita And Upekkha: state of a true friend. It is also explained as the friendly disposition, for a genuine
friend sincerely wishes for the welfare of his friend. Buddha says, "As mother
A Buddhist Philosophy For Healthy World Society" saves her child at the risk of her life, so must the friend"5 Metta is not mere universal
brotherhood, for it embraces all living beings including animals, our lesser brethren
and sisters that they are helpless.6
*Krishna S. Gaikwad
Political brotherhood is confined only to those who share similar political
views, racial brotherhood and national brotherhood are restricted only to those of
Abstract the same race andnation. The white races have a particular love for the white skin,
the black for the black, the yellow for the yellow, the brown for the brown, the
During the sixth century B.C. there came the rise of two protestant
pale for the pale, the red for the red and they resort to brutal warfare, killing
religions of ancient India i.e. Jainism and Buddhism. What that led to
millions by mercilessly raining bombs from the sky above. E.g. thepersecution of
their rise? There are divergent opinions about it. The contemporary
Jews by Hitler.Metta is not religious brotherhood either because even in thetwenty-
Vedicreligion had become complex and based only on the institution of
first century the followers of one religion hate or ruthlessly persecute and even
sacrifice, rituals and hymns. The priestly class was predominant1and
kill those of other faiths merely because they cannot force them to think as they
was exploiting the people of their religion. The killing of animals in the
do, or because they have a different label. E.g. the Gujarat communal riots of year
sacrifice hurt the feelings of the society as these animals were the cattle
2002.The Buddha states:
of farm growing people. The language which was used by the Purohitas
"Hatreds do not cease through hatreds: Through love alone they cease."7
was beyond understanding of the common people.
How Practicingof Metta Benefits
The Varna and caste system that divided the society into groups led to the
social exploitation of the so called lower Varna and lower caste people. But the
• Themetta practicing person sleeps happily. He is fast asleep immediately on closing
Jainism and Buddhism gave an alternative solace to the people.1 Jain Philosophy
his eyes.
was having all the extremities of body and mind wherein Buddhism had the entire
• He awakes with an equally loving heart, benevolently, compassionately and with
middle path for attainment of spiritual solace to the people. The Buddha"s Dhamma
smiling face.
stands on the doctrine which is rationally possible for the welfare of human being.2
• He is not perturbed by bad dreams but has pleasant dreams.
Within the powerful mind of humanbeing it may become good or bad as per
• The Metta practicingperson becomes dear to human beings.8
the dynamic fluctuations of the state of mind. With the development of the
• Metta leads to quick mental concentration.
respective characteristics man may become either a blessing or a curse to humanity.3
• Metta tends to beautify one"s facial expression as against anger.
The Buddha taughtMetta (maitri)againstDosa (anger), Karuna (compassion)
• A person imbued with metta dies peacefully as he harbours no thoughts of hatred
against Himsa (violence), Mudita (joy) againstIssa (jealousy) and Upekkha
towards any. Even after death his serene face reflects his peaceful death.
(equanimity) against Pleasure seeking. These Four Virtues in Pali are collectively
Need of Metta Today : This chaotic, war-weary, restless world of today,
termed as "Bramhaviharas, or "Appamannas"4 (Illimitable).Even the poorest man
where the nations are arming themselves to the teeth, frightened of one another,
or woman can accomplish this task. It is strange that the vices latent in man seem
where human life is endangered by nuclear weapons which may be released at
Note - Research Paper Received in September 2015 and Reviewed in September 2015. any moment is sorely in need of this universal loving kindness, so that all may live
in one world in perfect peace and harmony, like brothers and sisters.9
*Asst.Prof.of History, L.J.N.J.Women"s College, Vile Parle, Mumbai
10 Krishna S. Gaikwad Significance of Metta, Karuna, Mudita..... 11
How to Practise Metta : Metta should be practiced first towards oneself.10. Calmly he questioned his host as to what he would do when guests visited his
When he is full of peace and is free from thoughts of hatred, he now radiates his house. He replied that he would prepare a feast to entertain them.22 Then Buddha
loving kindness towards all his near and dear ones individually and collectively, told him calmly that he did not accept the insult and abuses and asked him to take
wishing them peace and happiness and freedom from suffering, disease, worry them back.The offender"s character was completely transformed.These are golden
and anger11irrespective of creed, race, colour, or sex. words that should be given heed to in this ill-disciplined world of today.Like the
wind that does not cling to the meshes of a net, one should not be attached to the
The Virtue of Karuna : According to Buddhist Philosophy "Karuna" or
illusory pleasures of this changing world. Like the lotus that is unsoiled by the
"Compassion" is the second virtue can bedefined as that which makes the hearts
mud from which it springs, one should live unaffected by worldly temptations,
of the good quiver when others are subject to suffering, or that which dissipates
ever calm, serene and peaceful.23 Metta embraces all beings, karuna embraces
the sufferings of others. Its chief characteristic is the wish to remove the woes of
sufferers, mudita embraces the prosperous, and upekkha embraces the good and
others.12It is a compassion that compels one to serve others with altruistic motives.
the bad, the loved and the unloved, the pleasant and the unpleasant.24 Thus, the
A truly compassionate person lives not for return, not even gratitude.13It is sure
above Buddhist virtues embodied in the Buddhist Philosophy can help every human
that those who have in abundance can give to the poor and the needy their surplus
being to lead a life of happiness and let others happy.
without inconveniencing themselves.14 It is gratifying to note that some wealthy
countries have formed themselves into various philanthropic bodies to help under
References
developed countries, especially in Asia; in every possible way.15
1. D"Souza Eugene, Ancient India, Manan Prakashan, Mumbai, 2003, pp.95-97.
The Virtue of Mudita : The third virtue according to Buddhist Philosophy is
2. Kenadi L.,Revival of Buddhism in Modern India: The Role of B.R. Ambedkar and the
mudita. It is not mere sympathy but sympathetic or appreciative joy which tends to Dalai Lama XIV,Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi,1995,p.5.
destroy jealousy, its direct enemy.16 In one way mudita is concerned more with oneself 3. Narada Maha Thera, The Buddha and His Teaching, Singapore Buddhist Meditation Centre,
than with others, as it tends to eradicate jealousy which ruins oneself. On the other Singapore, 2008.p.363.
hand it aids others as well, since one who practices mudita will not try to hinder the 4. Dr.Babasaheb Ambedkar:Writings andSpeeches, Vol.11,Education department,
Government of Maharashtra, Bombay,1992, p.130.
progress and welfare of others.17 The practice of metta and karuna is easier than the
5. Narada Maha Thera,op.cit., p.364.
practice of mudita, which demands great personal effort and strong will power. 18
6. Ibid., p.365.
Does one nation rejoice over the welfare of another nation? One religion is jealous 7. Basham A.L.,The Wonder That Was India, Surjeet Publications, 2007, p.283.
of another religion, one part of the globe is jealous of another part of the globe, one 8. Sharma Ram Karan (ed.), Researchesin Indian and Buddhist Philosophy,Motilal
institution is jealous of another institution, one business firm is jealous of another Banarasidas Pub.Delhi, 1993, p.41.
business firm, one family is jealous of another family, unsuccessful pupils are jealous 9. Bhattachrya N.N., Buddhism in the Hist. of Indian Ideas, Manohar, 1993, p.196.
10. Narsu P.Laxmi, The Essence of Buddhism, Asian Education Services, Madras, 1907, p.135.
of successful pupils, sometimes even one brother or sister is jealous of another
11. Narada Maha Thera, op.cit.pp.372-75.
brother or sister.19 This is the very reason why individuals and groups should practice
12. Kenadi L., op.cit.p.64.
appreciative joy, if they wish to sublime themselves and be internally happy.Mudita 13. Trivedi V.R., Philosophy of Buddhism, MohitPublishers.,New Delhi, 1997, pp.67-68.
tends to eliminate any dislike towards a successful person.20 14. Keown Damian,Are There Human Rights in Buddhism? An article in the Journal of
The Virtue of Upekkha : The fourth virtue the human being can practice is Buddhist Ethics, Vol.2, 1995, p.33.
the most difficult and the most essential. It is upekkha or equanimity. The 15. Dharmachari Adarsha, Western Buddhist Review, Vol.2, An article on Buddhism and
Karuna, 1991, p.24.
etymological meaning of the term upekkha is "discerning rightly," "viewing justly"
16. Encycopaedia Britannica,www.Britannica.com/mudita
or "looking impartially," that is, without attachment or aversion, without favour or
17. www.accesstoinsight.org,Readings in Theravada Buddhism
disfavour.Equanimity is necessary, especially for laymen who have to live in an ill 18. Lama Angarika Govinda, Buddhist Reflections, Motilal Banarsidas, Delhi, 2007, pp.87-
balanced world amidst fluctuating circumstances.21 All humanity is affected by 89.
loss and gain, fame and infamy, praise and blame, pain and happiness .There was 19. Thapar Romila,AHistory ofIndia, New Delhi, Penguin Books, 1990.
no religious teacher in the world who was so severely criticized, attacked, insulted 20. Meshram N.G.,International Understanding of Buddhism, Mumbai, 2002, p.26.
21. www.accesstoinsight.org,Readings in Theravada Buddhism
and reviled as the Buddha, and yet none so highly praised, honoured and revered
22. Basham A.L., op.cit.p.283.
as the Buddha.At once, a person invited Buddha tohis house for alms and
23. Sharma Ram Karan (ed.), op.cit.p.41.
entertained the Buddha with the filthiest language current in his time. He was 24. Narsu P.L., op.cit.p.135.
called "swine," "brute," "ox," etc. but he was not offended. He did not retaliate.
• • •
12 Origin And Growth of Monastic Culture In Ladakh..... 13
except for tourism. Since 1974, the Government of India has successfully
encouraged tourism in Ladakh.2
Many historians, while describing Ladakh, often refer to this region as a
part of the Western Himalayan Region. The Western Himalaya is a large
geographical entity and it includes Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir, Lahaul –Spiti
4
and Upper Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh.3 This makes the approach to Ladakh
extremely difficult and that has been a reason for its geographic isolation for
Origin And Growth of Monastic
centuries. There is a saying in Ladakh, "Only the best of friends and worst of
Culture In Ladakh: enemies will visit you in Ladakh". Not only does the geography, but the climate
also add to the hardships. Ladakh has severe winter and mild summer, the former
A Historical Perspective lasting for nearly seven months a year.4
Historical Background:
*Skalzang Dorjey
It is a popular belief, although there are conflicting opinions, that Buddhism
was first introduced to Ladakh during the reign of the Emperor Ashoka, the
Abstract greatest ruler of the Maurya Dynasty in India. Ashoka succeeded to this great
empire around 273 B.C. Even during those days Kashmir was a great learning
This paper is focusing on the evolution of the monastic culture in Ladakh
centre and it is said that Buddhism spread rapidly in India from Kashmir to
which prevails still today. It also reflects the growth of Buddhism and
Cylone. It penetrated into Nepal and later reached Tibet, China and Mongolia.
how it plays a vital role in the superstructure of Ladakh, and also shows
This resulted in the growth of vegetarianism and abstention from alcoholic
the beliefs they have toward the Buddhism in which changes occur with
drinks. Also with the spread of Buddhism animal sacrifices came to an end.5
the passage of time. It also discusses the continuity of role which plays
by monks (Lama) and some other agents which keeps the Buddhism While discussing the history of Ladakh, one invariably slips into talking
and its practice alive. The paper will throws a flash of light in the field about how Buddhism came into being in this region. In other words, there is a
of research particularly and Ladakh in general. thin dividing line between the history of Ladakh and about initiation and
advancement of Buddhism in this region. Moreover, it is difficult to look isolated
Key Words: Lama, Onpo, Monastery, Lotsava etc.
at Ladakh, for what happened was subject to the entire Western Himalayan region.
The Physical Scene: This indicates the strong impact that Buddhism made in this region and how
nearly all political events gyrated around the propagation and advancement of
Ladakh, situated between 32°.15° latitude and 75°.15° longitude in the Himalaya
this religion. Buddhism was the main factor that promoted kinship between
on the far northern frontier of India, is one of the coldest regions of the world.
Ladakh and Kashmir and Western Tibet, particularly with the latter. That is why
Ladakh has been known by many names: Maryul (Redland), Moonland, Broken-
perhaps, Dr. Francke discusses the History of Ladakh as "the History of Western
Moon, La-dags and last Shangri-La. During ancient times many nomadic tribes
Tibet".6
like mons and dards migrated through high Himalayan region. It was during this
Rajatarangani begin at the time of the kuru war, which occurred sometime
time that the mons and dards constructed many of the castles and patronized the
between the 12th and 14th century B.C. Gonanda I of the Kashmir lived in that
artisans.1
period and the date has been fixed to 1260 B.C . Surendra is the first Buddhist
In the past Ladakh gained importance for its strategic location at the
ruler of Kashmir, who built the first vihara in Kashmir. His reign can be fixed in
crossroads of important trade routes, but since the Chinese authorities closed the
the middle of the 1st century B.C. it is recorded that during the rule of Asoka (269-
borders with Tibet and Central Asia in the 1960s, international trade has dwindled
227 B.C), the penetration of Buddhism in the region reached its zenith.7
During the reign of Sron-btsan-sgam-po (600-650 A.D 16 students were
deputed to Kashmir to learn the new script to be used for the Tibetan. Accordingly,
Note - Research Paper Received in September 2015 and Reviewed in September 2015.
the new script was based on Sarda script, then prevalent in Kashmir. Srinkandanda
*Ph.D Research Scholar, Department of History, University of Jammu,
taught them this script. Tabuta and Ganuta were also invited to Tibet. It was during
Jammu, J&K
14 Skalzang Dorjey Origin And Growth of Monastic Culture In Ladakh..... 15
this period that the statue of Buddha was installed at Lhasa. The work of translation Monasteries in Ladakh :
of the Buddhist texts was started by Dharmahists and others.8 During this process
The composite culture of Ladakh is much dependent upon the Buddhism from
of spread of Buddhism from Kashmir to Tibet, Ladakh also did not remain
ancient times. Ladakh is called La-dag in Tibet. It has also known as Mar-Yul or
untouched as it was via Ladakh that Buddhism reached Tibet.
the lowland and Kha-Chumpa or the snow land. Buddhist monastery in both Tibetan
According to a legend, the Buddha"s disciple Arhat Majhantika blessed this
and Ladakhi is calledGonpa (dgon-pa), a solitary place or hermitage. According
land with a visit. He first arrived at the present site of Lamayuru( Gyung-drung)
to Robert James Miller "any unit where in there is a resident body of monks will
Gonpa (monastery) when the whole area was in lake. He blessed the valley of
be called Monastery".13 The origin of the monastery goes back to the time when
Nubrawhich was also a lake at that time. Blessing the present site of Spituk (Dpe-
the Buddhist monks wandered around for knowledge and food. There is a problem
thub) Gonpa, he prophesized that a monastic community would be established
with spending the whole year wandering in India. During the rainy season for
there. There is a stupa at Sabu which is said to contain relics of Majhantika and it
about four months the roads and track are covered with water and it is simply very
is believed that he also blessed the present site of the Gonpa nearby.9 We came to
difficult to move around the country. There is also a moral question, which has
know about the Arhat cave or NimaGunpa cave at Lamayuru which indicates that
been raised at times, that wandering around in water/floods may cause harm to
he blessed the place during his visit. With the course of time monastery was
living beings. Due to this it seems that already in the time of Buddha there was a
established over there which is one of the famous among the monasteries of Ladakh
tradition of staying in one place for the rainy season.
now-a-days.
So, it is likely that in many ways the origin of the Buddhist monastic
Ladakh legend says that one of the springs which the Arhat created in Kashmir tradition goes back to these rainy season retreat dwellings. Royal patronage
was called Veri-Nag. The Arhat brought saffron seeds from Mount Malaya especially after the king Ashoka, radically transformed the monastic structure.14
and made the present Pampur as the hub of saffron. The Udahhi called the There was a close and consistent cultural relationship between Ladakh and
Arhat Dra-cham-pa-Nima-Gonpa, attained Arhathood at noon. The Kashmiris Buddhist Tibet for centuries and this resulted in the development of many
knew the Arhat by the name of Kashyap Muni or Rishi, and folk singers monasteries in Ladakh.
praise him in a number of popular folk songs still sung today.10 Monasteries in Ladakh can be categorized into three levels. These are the
village level monasteries, medium monasteries and the main monasteries. Every
Buddhism In Ladakh:
Buddhist village in Ladakh has village level monastery (mini Lhakhang), and a
According to popular belief, Asoka"s missionaries believed to have penetrated few such monasteries are attached to medium monasteries and are in turn linked
into Ladakh and propagated Buddhism in about 3rd century B.C and later with a major monastery.
Buddhism is said to have been firmly rooted in Ladakh from 1stcentury C.E. The case of Lamayuru monastery and Spituk monastery very well illustrate
Fa-Hien, the Chinese pilgrim makes mention of the flourishing conditions of the system of hierarchy in each monastery complex in Ladakh. The spituk
the religion in Ladakh in 400 C.E. According to him, the doctrine of Hinayana Monastery manages several medium monasteries like Sanker and Sabu, and each
form or lesser vehicles of Buddhism prevailed in Ladakh. However, Mahayana of these manages a large number of village-level monasteries. In the case of
form of Buddhism was also introduced later on. Lotsava Rinchen Zangpo Lamayuru monastery also, it is connected with several medium level monasteries
was one of the great religious figures and translators. He was primarily like Skurbuchan, each of which manage a large number of village-level
responsible for the revival of Buddhism in Tibet and Ladakh. He is still monasteries.15Like in Tibet, wood is also scarce in Ladakh and most of the
remembered as the great founder of the stupas and missionaries both in Ladakh monasteries in Ladakh are built of stone or sun-dried bricks. The design and style
and the ancient kingdom of Guge11. are the same as those in Tibet. The monasteries are often quite imposing buildings,
several stories in height, with large courtyards in which the Lamas perform the
Ladakh a Buddhist wonderful land, has preserved a glorious heritage
yearly monastic festival. The ground floor is with smaller windows and is generally
apparently concealed among different forgotten monasteries, which are located in
used as storehouse. Other floors house different deities. In terms of size, the
ringed mountainous valleys. Monasteries served as an epicenter of Buddhist society
monasteries in Ladakh are smaller than the Tibetan monasteries. The size of Tibetan
where students used to get education and religious enlightment. Religious fervor
monasteries sometimes is immense, containing thousands of monks.16
and a flow-less dedication of the medival northwestern Tibetan king was another
Some of the Monasteries and Architectural sites which come under the
factor which fervently tried to nurture Buddhism and ultimately paved the way for
Archaeological Survey of India:
its proliferation12.
16 Skalzang Dorjey Origin And Growth of Monastic Culture In Ladakh..... 17
Name of the site Place District Conclusion:
Sculptures at Drass Drass Kargil Thus the above study throws the flash of light on the never ending journey of the
Rock cut sculptures Mulbek Kargil monastic culture in Ladakh from its inception since 2nd century A.D, under the
Buddhist Monastery Lamayuru Leh royal patronage it bloomed in the valley of Kashmir and spread to the peripheral
Buddhist Monastery Likir Leh and the adjoining area like Ladakh from where it travelled to Tibet. The study also
Buddhist Monastery Alchi Leh shows how Buddhism became an integral part of the life of the common people
Buddhist Monastery Phyang Leh and manifested itself in the form of superstructures like monasteries and stupas
Ancient Palace Leh Leh which are the real heritage of Ladakh region today.
Old Castle (Tsemo-Hill) Leh Leh
Stupa Tisserru Leh Leh
Ancient Palace & Shrine Shey Leh References :
Hemis Monastery Hemis Leh
1. GurmetDorjey, Buddhist Monasteries of Zanskar: A study in Art and Culture, Unpublished
Thiksay Monastery Thiksay Leh
Thesis, 2010, p. 12.
Shrine of four lords Leh Leh 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladakh
Gon-Khang (Tsemo-Hill) 3. Janhwij Sharma, Architectural Heritage Ladakh, The Indian National Trust for Art and
Cultural Heritage in Association with Har-Anand Publication Pvt. Ltd.,p.15.
Religious Beliefs : 4. Ibid.
5. Nawang TseringShakspo, A Cultural History of Ladakh, Centre for Research on Ladakh,
Onpo : Onpo or Horologist is perhaps the most important individual, for it you
The Sabu Solitarian Leh, 2010,p.4.
wish to plough your field, to call in the lamas for the reading of holy books, or 6. Janhwij Sharma, Architectural Heritage Ladakh, The Indian National Trust for Art and
desire to choose the best day on which to marry, in fact for the decision of all the Cultural Heritage in association with Har-Anand Publication Pvt. Ltd., p.17.
important affairs of life, you must get him to settle the auspicious day. There is 7. F.M. Hussain, Buddhist Kashmir.
little to distinguish the onpo outwardly, but on official occasion he may dress like 8. Ibid,
9. Ibid
a lama, even to the wearing of a priestly cap, but his pigtail will distinguish him
10. Ibid,
from the ecclesiastic.17
11. GurmetDorjey,Opcit, p. 12.
Buddhist Logic : Buddhist logic starts with the theory of sensationas 12. Ibid, p.13.
the most indubitable voucher for the existence of an external world. It then 13. SonamJoldan, Traditional Ties Between Ladakh and Buddhist Tibet: Monastic Organisation
proceeds to a theory of co-ordination between that external world and the and Monastic Education as a Sustaining Factor, Published by The Tibet Journal, ISSN
representation of it as constructed by our understanding in images and concepts. 0970-5368, Vol. XXXI No. 2 Summer 2006, p.1.
14. Ibid.
Next comes the theory of judgement of inference and of syllogism. Finally the
15. Ibid.
theory on the art of conducting Philosophical disputations (vada-vidhi) in public
16. Ibid. p. 2.
is appended. It thus embraces the whole area of human knowledge, beginning 17. A Reeve Hebe M.D, Ch.B and Kathleen M .Heber M.B, Ch.B, Himalaya Tibet and Ladakh,
with rudimentary sensation and ending with the complicated apparatus of a Published by ESS ESS, Delhi 52, 1976, p. 135.
public debate. 18. Advaitavadini Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir (their contributions abroad), Utpal
Buddhists call this science a doctrine of the sources of right knowledge. The Publications, Srinagar,1987, p.77.
ultimate aim of Buddhist logic is to explain the relation between a moving reality
• • •
and the static constructions of thought. Buddhist logic was created in India as a
consequence of the writings of Dignagaduring 5th century A.D. and of Dharmakirti
during 7th century A.D. the creation of the Buddhist logical literature was followed
in all northern Buddhist countries. It contains the enormous literature of
commentaries.18
18 History of Iron Metallurgy And Use..... 19
account mentioned that iron ingots from the "Seres", in South India were exported
to roman cities, The writer of Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, also suggest that the
in India iron was made by crucible process.
It has been argued that iron was introduced in India from the West. But early
ideas about the Aryan migration theory and theintroduction of iron into India
5
from the West have nowbeen proved to be incorrect.3 Iron in the Indian subcontinent
has a rich history and heritage.Iron-working origins in India were dated to c. 700-
History of Iron Metallurgy And Use of
600 BCE.4 Recent excavations in the valley of the river Ganges East done by
Iron In The Indian Subcontinent archaeologist iron jobs in India may have begun in early 1800 BCE. Archaeological
sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala kaTila and Lahuradewa in
Uttar Pradesh showing iron carried out in the period between 1800 BC - 1200
*Shailesh Tripathi B.C. An association with Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and the advent of radiocarbon
dating began to push the date of iron use more back towards the second millennium
Abstract BCE,5Chakrabartichallenged the view of a western origin, stating "there is no
logical basis to connect the beginningof iron in India with any diffusion from the
Iron in Indian subcontinent has a rich history and heritage. In the 5thcentury
west, from Iran and beyond", and further "that India was a separate and possibly
BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that Indian armyas well as
independent centre of manufacture of early iron."6 The primacy of iron technology
the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron. Ancient Romans used armour
in the Indian subcontinent is well established.
and cutlery made of Indian iron. Pliny the Elder also mentioned Indian iron.
There are several published books on the state of ancient Indian iron
Introduction - Metal has been a critical technological and economic resource technology asmedieval literature Ras RatnaSamuchchaya, describes aboutvarieties
in all historical societies. Metals that were commonly used in ancient times include of iron ore itsmetallurgy and their manufacturing processes.7 Indian iron and steel
gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, zinc and mercury. Iron objects of a rudimentary occupied a significant place in the world iron technology complex. The Delhi
kind go back to the end of the second millennium BC. The use of iron, especially Iron Pillar (Fig. 1), The large beams at the Sun temple at Konark dated to 9th-10th
in weaponry, was known around 800 BC although the quality iron is later, with a century,The Iron pillar at Dhar in central India, Wootz steel.Wootz steel not only
quantitative and qualitative increase of iron artefacts, which included implements illustrates the pride of Indian black smithy skills but also represents a peak of
of various kinds, vessels, nails and such like, as well as an improvement in Indian technology.
weapons.1
The earth"s mantle also contains iron in the form of iron and magnesium
silicates. Iron is generally found as iron ore. The use of iron was the most significant
innovation from technological point of view. The smelting of iron may have begun
with using a technology parallel to that copper smelting, but the marked confidence
in using iron by the mid millennium is striking. Efficiency in handling iron was a
new experience.2
The ingenuity and the innovative spirit of the metal workers is manifested
most in the iron and steel manufacturing from quite an early date. It is fully borne
out by early Vedic texts and the travel accounts of the foreign travelers as well as
the historians who came to the subcontinent from time to time. For example
Herodotus, wrote in the battle of Thermopylae (ca480 CE),Indiansoldiersof Persian
army used a special type of arrows i.e. cane arrows with iron tips. Pliny in his
Note - Research Paper Received in September 2015 and Reviewed in September 2015.
*Research Scholar, Dept. History, B.B.Ambedkar University, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India
Fig.1. Iron pillar of Delhi