expanding, refining, and replicating research on high school gay-straight student alliances and ...

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Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, &
Graduate School
Professional Papers
2013
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Nicholas Christopher Heck
The University of Montana
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Heck, Nicholas Christopher, "EXPANDING, REFINING, AND REPLICATING RESEARCH ON HIGH SCHOOL
GAY-STRAIGHT STUDENT ALLIANCES AND SEXUAL MINORITY YOUTH" (2013). Graduate Student
Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 4127.
https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/4127
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EXPANDING, REFINING, AND REPLICATING RESEARCH ON HIGH SCHOOL GAY-

STRAIGHT STUDENT ALLIANCES AND SEXUAL MINORITY YOUTH

By
NICHOLAS CHRISTOPHER HECK
Master of Arts, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT, 2010
Bachelor of Arts, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, 2006

Dissertation
presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in Clinical Psychology

The University of Montana
Missoula, MT

July 2013

Approved by:

Sandy Ross, Associate Dean of The Graduate School
Graduate School

Bryan N. Cochran, Ph.D., Chair
Department of Psychology

Cameo Borntrager, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology

Jennifer S. Robohm, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology

Annie Sondag, Ph.D.
Department of Health and Human Performance

Nadine Wisniewski, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
© COPYRIGHT

by

Nicholas Christopher Heck

2013

All Rights Reserved
ii
Heck, Nicholas C., Ph.D., July 2013 Clinical Psychology

Expanding, Refining, and Replicating Research on High School Gay-Straight
Student Alliances and Sexual Minority Youth

Chairperson: Dr. Bryan N. Cochran

Sexual minority youth are at-risk for engaging in negative health behaviors and for
experiencing at-school victimization. Specific benefits of attending a high school with a
gay-straight student alliance (GSA), including lower risk for suicide, fewer alcohol
problems and lower levels of psychological distress, have been reported. Limitations in
the previous research studies, especially the use of retrospective designs, small sample
sizes, and samples limited to a single geographic region, call into question the
generalizability of these benefits. In an effort to overcome the aforementioned
limitations, this analysis of data from 316 sexual minority high school students identified
individual/family-, community-, and school-level variables that predicted academic,
mental health, and substance use outcomes.
After controlling for these and other demographic variables, results indicate that youth
attending a high school with a GSA reported more favorable substance use outcomes
when compared to peers attending a high school without a GSA. However, this
association was not present when examining mental health outcomes, which may indicate
that GSAs promote favorable mental heath outcomes in sexual minority young adults by
way of reduced substance use in late adolescence. This association may also be the result
of undetected interaction effects or non-linear associations among predictor and outcome
variables. Practical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed, along with
suggestions for future research. Important limitations of this study are reviewed.
iii
Dedication

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to three people.

My first psychology instructor- you taught your students to celebrate diversity and
encouraged us to be ourselves.

My dentist- you provided me with a winning smile, a mother’s unconditional love, and
unwavering support to pursue my dreams.

My eighth grade gym teacher- you accepted your gay son when it was not easy to do, and
you are without a doubt, my favorite golf partner.

iv
Acknowledgements

A number of individuals made important contributions to this dissertation, and
more broadly, to my development as an aspiring clinical scientist. First, I would like to
acknowledge The National GLBTQ Youth Foundation for funding a portion of this study.
I have submitted many grant applications over the past five years, and this organization
was the first to financially support my research. For this, I am extremely grateful.
Second, I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee: Drs.
Cameo Borntrager, Jennifer Robohm, Annie Sondag Nadine Wisniewski, and my chair,
Bryan Cochran. Before being supervised by Cameo, I was an unproven commodity; yet
with her knowledge and guidance, I learned to demonstrate my clinical effectiveness by
engaging in the process of evidence-based practice. I would like to thank Nadine for
underscoring the importance of therapeutic process and for giving me my very first
puppet, Mr. Fox. I would like to thank Jen for willingly serving on both my thesis and
dissertation committees and for her wisdom as she helped me endure the challenges
associated with being a neophyte clinician. I would like to thank Annie for supporting
this dissertation and for her service to the university and broader LGBT community.
Finally, I would like to thank my friend and mentor Bryan for adding humor, humanity,
love and endless optimism to my graduate education. Despite the fact that we will no
longer see one another on a regular basis, I trust that we will continue to collaborate and
be the most productive of researchers. Words cannot express how blessed I am to have
you in my life.
Third, I would like to acknowledge a number of my fellow students from the
Psychology Department at The University of Montana. Early in my graduate career Abby
Kiklevich and Joanna Legerski provided me with support, opportunities for collaboration,
statistical advice, and mentorship. In addition, this dissertation would not have been
completed without the help of four amazing research assistants: Christopher Brennan,
Beryl Clark, Nicci Dussek, and Brandon Stewart. My journey through graduate school
was certainly easier and more enjoyable as a result of the friendship provided by my
classmates Jamie Armstrong, Leslie Croot, Renee Madathil, and Haley Trontel. I would
also like to thank Nick Livingston (aka the other Nick, Nick #2, and little Nick), Lauri
Lindquist, and Annesa Flentje for being excellent co-investigators and wonderful friends.
Finally, I would like to thank Daniel Dewey for his friendship and general ability to
endure the challenges associated with being my roommate for the past four years.
Fourth, I would like to acknowledge three very special people in my life.
Michelle, the peacekeeper, thanks for helping to maintain our family’s civility in my
extended absence. Alexis, the baby sister, thanks for keeping our family young at heart
and on our toes. And Blake, the most kind-hearted person I have ever met, thank you for
showing me the most beautiful place on earth, sticking by my side when things were
difficult, and for believing in second chances. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to
thank Booger the cat, who is in no way responsible for any portion of this dissertation, in
part because he is now enrolled in a behaviorally-based weight management and kitty
diabetes prevention program.

v
Table of Contents

Abstract iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
Chapter One: Background 1
Important Definitions 1

Studies of Sexual Minority Youth 3

Early Research Involving Sexual Minority Youth 4
Methodological Improvements 10

Abuse and Victimization among Sexual Minority Youth 13
Minority Stress Hypothesis 17
Gay-Straight Alliances and Sexual Minority Youth 20
Objectives and Hypotheses 23
Chapter Two: Methods 27
Participants 27
Procedure 30
Survey Instrument and Associated Measures 33
Analytic Strategy 46
Chapter Three: Results 48
Determining Demographic Covariates 48
vi
School Outcomes 52
Substance Use Outcomes 59
Mental Health Outcomes 74
Summary of Results 91
Chapter Four: Discussion 93
Refining the Research Involving GSAs 93
Replicating the Research Involving GSAs 94
Expanding the Research Base Involving GSAs 97
Implications 100
Limitations 106
Future Directions 109
References 112
Appendix A 178
Appendix B 180
Appendix C 181
Appendix D 184
Appendix E 185
Appendix F 186
Appendix G 188
Appendix H 193

vii
List of Figures

Figure 1. Project Model 129

Figure 2. Geographic Representation of Analytic Sample 130

Figure 3. Revised Geographic Representation of Sample (4/1/2012) 131

viii
List of Tables

Table 1.0 Search Terms for Identifying Social Networking Groups 132

Table 2.0 Descriptive Statistics for Predictor and Outcome Variables 133

Tables 3.1 – 3.4 Modeling Results: School Belonging 134

Tables 4.1 – 4.4 Modeling Results: At-School Victimization 137

Tables 5.1 – 5.4 Modeling Results: AUDIT Total Scores 140

Tables 6.1 – 6.4 Modeling Results: History of Alcohol Intoxication 144

Tables 7.1 – 7.4 Modeling Results: Age of First Alcohol Intoxication 148

Tables 8.1 – 8.4 Modeling Results: DAST Total Scores 152

Tables 9.1 – 9.5 Modeling Results: Brief Symptom Inventory GSI Scores 156

Tables 10.1 – 10.4 Modeling Results: Brief Symptom Inventory (Depression) 160

Tables 11.1 – 11.4 Modeling Results: Brief Symptom Inventory (Anxiety) 164

Tables 12.1 – 12.4 Modeling Results: Brief Symptom Inventory (Somatization) 168

Tables 13.1 – 13.4 Modeling Results: PCL-C Total Scores 172

Table 14.0 Summary of Outcomes Associated with GSA Status 175

ix