Ex-ante life cycle engineering Application to nanotechnology and white biotechnology

229 Pages·2010·1.24 MB·English

Ex-ante life cycle engineering

Application to nanotechnology and white
biotechnology

Ex-ante levenscyclus engineering

Toepassing op nanotechnologie en witte biotechnologie

(met een samenvatting in het Nederlands)

Proefschrift

ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector
magnificus, prof.dr. J.C. Stoof, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in
het openbaar te verdedigen op woensdag 12 januari 2011 des ochtends te 10.30 uur

door

Alexander Louis Roes

geboren op 13 april 1976 te Amsterdam
Promotor: Prof.dr. E. Worrell

Co-promotor: Dr. M.K. Patel

ii
Executive summary
Contents

List of abbreviations .................................................................................... v

Executive summary ..................................................................................... xi

1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ....................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Technology assessment ..................................................................................... 6
1.3 Life cycle engineering – principles and outline .............................................. 8
1.3.1 Life cycle assessment ................................................................................ 10
1.3.2 Life cycle costing ...................................................................................... 12
1.4 Focus of this thesis .......................................................................................... 13
References .................................................................................................................... 17

2 Environmental and cost assessment of a polypropylene nanocomposite
..................................................................................................................... 21

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 21
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 22
2.2 Environmental assessment: Life cycle assessment ....................................... 23
2.2.1 LCA fundamentals .................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Goal definition and scoping ...................................................................... 24
2.2.3 Inventory analysis ..................................................................................... 30
2.2.4 Results: Life cycle impact assessment ...................................................... 37
2.2.5 Discussion and conclusions: Life cycle interpretation .............................. 40
2.3 Economic assessment: Life cycle costing ...................................................... 44
2.3.1 Methodology ............................................................................................. 44
2.3.2 Goal and scope definition ......................................................................... 44
2.3.3 Cost calculations ....................................................................................... 44
2.3.4 Interpretation of the results ....................................................................... 46
2.4 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 47
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 48
References .................................................................................................................... 49

3 Influence of using nanoobjects as filler on functionality based energy
use of nanocomposites ............................................................................ 53

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 53
3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 54
3.2 Methodology .................................................................................................... 57
3.2.1 Approach ................................................................................................... 57
3.2.2 Environmental assessment of nanoobjects ................................................ 58
i
3.3 Results .............................................................................................................. 64
3.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 74
3.4.1 Analysis of factors influencing mechanical properties ............................. 74
3.4.2 Extrusion ................................................................................................... 78
3.4.3 Uncertainties ............................................................................................. 80
3.5 Conclusions ...................................................................................................... 84
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... 86
References .................................................................................................................... 87

4 Preliminary assessment of the risks related to the waste management
of polymer nanocomposites .................................................................... 93

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 93
4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 94
4.2 Approach ......................................................................................................... 95
4.3 Toxicity of free nanoobjects ........................................................................... 96
4.4 Analysis of the MSWI process related to the fate of nanoobjects .............. 98
4.4.1 The waste incineration process ................................................................. 98
4.4.2 Processes that affect the potential release of free nanoobjects ................. 99
4.5 Preliminary risk assessment for a subset of nanoobjects .......................... 108
4.6 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 115
4.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 116
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 117
References .................................................................................................................. 118

5 Ex-ante environmental and economic evaluation of polymer
photovoltaics. ........................................................................................ 123

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 123
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 124
5.2 Environmental assessment ........................................................................... 125
5.2.1 LCA fundamentals .................................................................................. 125
5.2.2 Goal definition and scoping .................................................................... 125
5.2.3 Inventory analysis ................................................................................... 127
5.2.4 Results: Impact assessment ..................................................................... 142
5.2.5 Life cycle interpretation: Discussion and conclusions ............................ 145
5.3 Life cycle costing ........................................................................................... 149
5.3.1 Methodology ........................................................................................... 149
5.3.2 Goal and scope definition ....................................................................... 149
5.3.3 Cost calculations ..................................................................................... 150
5.3.4 Interpretation of the results ..................................................................... 151
5.4 Discussion ....................................................................................................... 152
5.4.1 Uncertainties regarding costs of module assembly ................................. 152
5.4.2 Assuming higher efficiencies .................................................................. 153
5.4.3 Perspectives ............................................................................................. 154
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Executive summary
5.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 154
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 156
References .................................................................................................................. 157

6 Life cycle risks for human health: a comparison of bio-based versus
petroleum-based production of 5 bulk organic chemicals ................. 165

Abstract ...................................................................................................................... 165
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 166
6.2 Methodology .................................................................................................. 167
6.2.1 External risks due to regular release of emissions .................................. 168
6.2.2 External risks due to technological disasters .......................................... 170
6.2.3 Accidents ................................................................................................. 170
6.2.4 Work-related illnesses ............................................................................. 171
6.2.5 Risk indicator matrix ............................................................................... 172
6.3 Results ............................................................................................................ 173
6.4 Uncertainties .................................................................................................. 180
6.4.1 Ranges of input data ................................................................................ 180
6.4.2 Uncertainty analysis for accidents and illnesses ..................................... 180
6.4.3 Coverage of emissions by EPS 2000 ...................................................... 181
6.4.4 Plausibility check by comparison with other literature data ................... 182
6.5 Conclusions .................................................................................................... 183
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... 184
References .................................................................................................................. 185

7 Conclusions ............................................................................................ 189

7.1 Improvements and extensions to the existing LCE methodology ............. 189
7.2 Nanotechnology ............................................................................................. 192
7.3 White biotechnology ..................................................................................... 194

Samenvatting in het Nederlands ............................................................. 197

Dankwoord ............................................................................................... 205

About the author ...................................................................................... 209

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Executive summary
List of abbreviations

AC Alternating current
APME Association of Plastics Manufacturers Europe – currently known as
PlasticsEurope
BGS Sugar cane bagasse
BMS Bayer Material Science
BOS Balance of system
C Buckminster fullerene
60
CB Carbon black
CENTREL Organization for the Electricity Transmission System Operators of
Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland and Slovak Republic
CFC-11-eq Trichlorofluoromethane equivalents
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
CIS Copper Indium Selenide
CML Centrum voor Milieukunde Leiden / Institute of environmental sciences
Leiden
CO -eq Carbon dioxide equivalents
2
Conv Conventional
CTA Constructive technology assessment
DC Direct current
DCS Dye-sensitized cells
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DfE Design for the environment
DI Deionized
DNA Desoxyribonucleic acid
ECA European Chemicals Agency
EDOT 3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene
Emiss. Emissions
Ep Epoxy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPDM Sulfonated ethylene-propylene-norbonene terpolymer
EPS Environmental Priorities Strategies
Eq. Equation
ESP Electrostatic precipitator
EVA Ethylvinylacetate
Fte Fulltime equivalent
FU/f.u. Functional unit
v
GF Glass fibre
GMO Genetically modified microorganisms and plants
GWP Global Warming Potential in the next 100 years
100
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HDPE High-density polyethylene
HEPA High efficiency particulate air
HHV Higher heating value
HiPco High-pressure carbon monoxide
ICT Information and communication technology
IP Integrated production
IPA Isopropyl alcohol
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPF Institut für Polymerforschung / Institute for Polymer Research
ISO International Standards Organization
ITO Indium tin oxide
LCA Life cycle assessment
LCC Life cycle costing
LCE Life cycle engineering
LCI Life cycle inventory
LDPE Low-density polyethylene
LED Light-emitting diode
LiF Lithium fluoride
LLDPE Linear low-density polyethylene
mc Multicrystalline
MI Material index
MMT Montmorillonite
MSWI Municipal solid waste incineration
MWNT Multiwalled carbon nanotubes
Nanocomp. Nanocomposite
NORDEL Organization for the Nordic Electricity Transmission System Operators
NOx Nitrogen oxides
NR Natural rubber
NREU Non-renewable energy use
ODA Octadecylamine
OTR Oxygen transmission rate
P3HT Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl)
PC Polycarbonate
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCBM [6,6]-Phenyl C -butyric acid methylester
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Executive summary
PCL Poly((cid:2)-caprolactone)
PE Polyethylene
PEDOT Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene)
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates
PHB Poly(hydroxybutyrate)
PLA Polylactic acid
PM Particulate matter
PMMA Poly(methyl methacrylate)
PO 3--eq Phosphate equivalents
4
POSS Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane
PP Polypropylene
PP-g-MA Maleic anhydride-grafted polypropylene
PS Polystyrene
PSS Poly(styrenesulfonate)
PTT Polytrimethylene terephthalate
PU Polyurethane
PV Photovoltaic
PVC Polyvinylchloride
PVF Polyvinylfluoride
R&D Research and Development
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and restriction of CHemicals
Sb-eq Antimony equivalents
SETAC Society for Environmental Toxicity and Chemistry
SO Sulphur dioxide
2
SO -eq Sulphur dioxide equivalents
2
SWNT Singlewalled carbon nanotubes
TBT Tributyltin
TPES Total primary energy supply
TPS Thermoplastic starch
UCTE Union for the Co-ordination of Transmission of Electricity
UFP Ultrafine particles
UV Ultraviolet
VAT Value added tax
VOC Volatile organic compounds
Waste mmt Waste management
W Watt-peak
p
XLDPE Cross-linked low-density polyethylene
YOLL Years of life lost
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Units

K Kelvin
oC degree Celcius

nm nanometre
(cid:3)m micrometre
cm centimetre
mm millimetre
dm decimetre
m metre
km kilometre

tkm tonnekilometre

cm2 square centimetre
dm2 square decimetre
m2 square metre
km2 square kilometre
ha hectare

cm3 cubic centimetre
dm3 cubic decimetre
m3 cubic metre
l litre

(cid:3)g microgramme
mg milligramme
g gramme
kg kilogramme
t 1) tonne (metric) 2) ‘thickness’ on p 27

E Young modulus
(cid:4) Tensile strength
f
(cid:5) Density
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