ERIC EJ956222: Supporting Communication and Argumentation in Urban Science Education: Hip-Hop, the Battle, and the Cypher

2011·0.24 MB·English

by  ERIC

Supporting Communication and
Argumentation in Urban Science Education:
Hip-hop, the Battle, and the Cypher

Christopher Emdin
Teachers College, Columbia University

Abstract

This paper is based on an exploration of communication and
argumentation in urban science classrooms, and provides a
description of the role that Hip-hop based education plays in
supporting these major components of science education. The
paper is intended to both support, and critique conventional uses
of hip-hop based education, and provide insight into the rap battle
and the hip-hop cypher; two under-focused upon aspects of hip-
hop culture that have tremendous pedagogical potential.

Keywords: Urban Science Education, Hip-Hop, Battle, Cypher

INTRODUCTION
Much academic work that considers hip-hop as a tool for
improving instruction has considered rapping about a topic, or
using rap lyrics as text to be studied as the primary model of hip-
hop based education (Hill, 2009; Morrell & Duncan-Andrade,
2002). This process usually involves the creation of raps
(sentences that rhyme and/or have a particular cadence usually
performed over rhythm,) that contain academic content and/or the
use of lyrics from rap songs to become the anchors of classroom
lessons (Powell, 1991). While these efforts to bring rap into the
classroom reflect a step in the right direction in regards to utilizing
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hip-hop as a tool for instruction, the use of rap lyrics as the sole
piece of hip-hop based education has become such a widespread
practice that it truncates the potential of hip-hop culture to truly
reflect the complexities of both pedagogy and urban youth culture.
Much of what is described as hip-hop based education is merely
rap-based instruction that is misnamed as hip-hop. In this paper, I
suggest that while rap is an artifact of hip-hop that holds much
symbolic value in hip-hop culture, it neither represents the full
spectrum of hip-hopness (being hip-hop), nor the potential of hip-
hop to reframe teaching and learning.
Urban youth of color, who engage in the complex and multi-
modal culture of hip-hop, are often forced to engage in classrooms
where the instruction is mostly uni-modal and one-dimensional
(Emdin, 2011). This fact, combined with larger issues related to
poverty and societal bias, cause urban youth disengagement in
classrooms, and leads to low scores on conventional markers of
academic success that are indicators of achievement (Corley,
2003; Felice, 1981; Jencks & Phillips, 1998).
While the creation and analysis of rap text within classrooms
shows an appreciation for hip-hop culture and advancement from
conventional instruction (Dimitriadis, 2001), in too many
instances, it merely uses rap as a way for youth to memorize
information. This use of rap as a memorization tool calls forth
archaic modes of instruction like rote learning and bastardizes the
potential of a cultural art form whose legitimacy as a learning tool
has yet to be fully explored. I argue that the use of rap as the
singular way to support hip-hop based instruction, particularly
with youth of color whose culture is largely based on oral
traditions with deeper meanings than words (Alim, 2004;
Smitherman, 1997), misrepresents hip-hop culture, and reflects a
superficial rendering of hip-hopness.
In an effort to expand the potential of hip-hop based
education, I argue for the study of aspects of the culture that have
yet to be fully explored in the field of education. In addition, rather
than focus on the use of rap text in subject areas like English or
Social Studies (as is most customary), I suggest a focus on its
potential in science education. The hip-hop based pedagogical
approaches I present in this paper consider the social, symbolic,
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and cultural capital that students bring into the classroom as the
point from which pedagogy is birthed (Freire, 1970; Ladson-
Billings, 1994). More specifically, the work validates urban hip-
hop youth practices as a legitimate culture, and emphasizes the
capital students bring to the classroom as hip-hop youth as a key to
communication and argumentation in the science classroom.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The theoretical framework that guides this work is
sociocultural in nature and considers the fact that urban youth of
color have a distinct culture with its own unique schema and
practices (Sampson & William, 1995). It considers that urban
schools have their own unique culture that is not necessarily
aligned to that of urban youth (Ainsworth-Darnell & Downey,
1998). The work is also grounded in the basic understanding that
culture exists, and is enacted within social fields (Bourdieu, 1993)
that collide with each other as participants from different cultures
interact to produce or reproduce social life (Giddens, 1984). When
this collision or combining occurs, the extent to which the schema
and practices of each social field blends seamlessly with the other
is dependent upon the shared understandings of people from each
culture (Williams, 1981). In the case of hip-hop youth and urban
classrooms, the schema and practices of hip-hop and school rarely
converge seamlessly. Therefore, it is imperative that we find a
mechanism to facilitate connections or weak ties (Granovetter,
1982) between the culture of youth and school. Hip-hop based
pedagogy serves as a facilitator of weak ties that may evolve into
strong connections between youth and the subject matter over
time.

HIP-HOP YOUTH IN URBAN SCIENCE
CLASSROOMS
Hip-hop youth listen to and create hip-hop music, and engage
in distinct hip-hop practices on a regular basis. These are youth
who can be identified by their modes of talk and dress, but also
their embodiment of distinct non-traditional characteristics in their
everyday interactions (Kitwana, 2002). Urban youth who are
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engaged in hip-hop are usually immersed in practices related to the
four main components of hip-hop (rapping, b-boying, graffiti, and
dee-jaying). While this paper could focus on any of these four
aspects, it focuses on rapping for the purpose of expanding how
that strand of hip-hop (despite its seeming oversaturation in
education) has been used in a limited scope.

Communication, Argumentation, and Science Education
In contemporary science education, science talk and
argumentation are two approaches to improving student
understanding that consistently emerge as viable approaches to
connecting them to the discipline. Brown (2005) has discussed the
importance of using students‘ ways of communicating as a tool to
expand their scientific vocabulary. In addition, Rivard and Straw
(2000) have discussed the importance of both writing and talking
science and their significance to scientific understanding. These
studies, as well as the many others that consider scientific
communication in the classroom (e.g. Ballenger, 1997; Crowder,
1996) ultimately serve to support the notion that deep
communication in and about science can evolve into comfort with
the subject. This work suggests that ideally, exchanges in the
classroom that foster argumentation, active debate, complex
thinking, deep questioning, the demonstration of mastery, and
defending one‘s position with appropriate words and content
knowledge supports true science (Driver, Newton, & Osborne,
2000).
In hip-hop, exchanges among rappers that support
argumentation (i.e., active debate, complex thinking, and deep
questioning) are the norm in a piece of the culture called the rap
battle. In the rap battle, lyricists compete against each other and
create impromptu raps that have to be coherent, insightful, and/or
draw from research on the opponent in an off the cuff yet heated
manner (Alim, Lee, & Carris, 2010). In these battles, participants
stand before a crowd, present with followers and supporters
behind or next to them, and debate against a peer while using past
and present information to articulate an argument that debunks
their opponent. This practice supports complex thinking, deep
questioning, and keen observation about the environment.
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Consequently, I argue that a rap battle structured classroom
provides students with opportunities to express skills and talents
that are ideal for learning science that would not be otherwise
expressed in the classroom. By using language/structures from the
battle, hip-hop discourse is brought into the classroom, and hip-
hop youth are provided with incentives to research science
concepts discussed in class. This process provides youth with
opportunities to demonstrate their mastery of scientific concepts as
they get opportunities to repetitively discuss and debate them.

Science Talk and the Cypher
The cypher is a hip-hop practice where participants stand in a
circle and a number of them, who rap; take turns
presenting/performing until all people who are present get an
opportunity to participate (Hill, 2011). In cyphers, some
participants rap while others provide background rhythms that are
rapped to. Others support the rappers by providing feedback when
they rhyme, or supporting their raps by cheering. During cyphers,
the multifaceted nature of the cultural and verbal exchanges
among hip-hop youth lead to the building of camaraderie (Emdin,
2011). As rappers take turns rapping, and other participants enact
their roles, certain rules of engagement that are not formally
stated, but are clearly understood by all participants, get enacted.
Over the duration of a cypher, unwritten rules and established
norms such as subtle words and gestures that alert the person who
is rapping that it is time to pass the verbal baton are enacted. Other
unwritten rules such as the supportive noise made at certain parts
of a rapper‘s rhyme, and the filling in of words or phrases when a
rapper is out of breath, are also abided by.
In certain cyphers, the exchange between rappers (who may
have formerly been strangers) is so seamless that the entire process
appears rehearsed to people who are not familiar with the process.
In most cyphers, the person who takes the turn from someone else
will reference the previous person‘s lines, and begin rapping
immediately after the previous person ends. In these types of
scenarios, the rhythm from handclaps or ambient noise produced
by other participants continues seamlessly and serves as a
backdrop to the fluid exchanges among performers/rappers. In
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cyphers, rappers mix memorized lyrics, completely impromptu
rhymes, and descriptions of their realities in a turn-by-turn sharing
of talents and skills. In these cyphers, there are equal turns at talk,
head nods by people who are present who are not rappers, cheers
by participants, and a person or group of people providing the
background music for the verbal exchanges.

Lessons from the Cypher
One of the major lessons from the cypher is its physical
structure. The cypher dictates that participants are organized in a
way that facilitates eye contact, and has participants being
positioned just about equidistant from each other. Therefore, I
argue that the ideal classroom should be structured in a way that
allows students to be in close proximity to each other and the
teacher. The cypher teaches educators that in order to facilitate
exchange among participants, the classroom should be organized
in a circle, and the teacher positioned in a way that includes him or
her in the classroom/cypher structure and not at the helm of the
classroom. The cypher also informs educators about the need to
structure the class in a way that any student, at any given time can
have the floor while engaging in different activities that support
the smooth functioning of the classroom. For example, there has to
be the space within the classroom for a student to be working on a
classroom assignment while another one is conducting a lab, and
another is doing research. This set up would be analogous to the
cypher where a student is rapping; another is creating the beat that
is being rapped to, and another is just watching and providing
feedback to the rapper.
Another significant lesson for teaching that comes from the
cypher is based on studies of rappers in cyphers. By studying the
ways that rappers in cyphers interact with their peers, and
understanding the distinct use of language within the cypher, much
information is provided to the teacher about how to interact with
students, and orchestrate communication among them. In cyphers,
the rapper at the helm can be compared to the teacher. This person,
at the moment when he or she is leading the cypher, often draws
analogies from the immediate surroundings during a rap
performance. In addition, the rapper consistently ensures that the
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general emotion during the cypher is positive by making
references to the words and actions of other members of the
cypher during his rap. This person is also willing at any indication
that another person wants to take the helm to allow that to happen.
Finally, the pace and volume of the rap is rarely consistent. In
order to draw cypher participants into the rap, the use of voice is
significant, and the voice emphasis on lines that the rapper
perceives to be memorable is distinct. Usually, a more animated
voice indicates to listeners that they should pay closer attention to
a particular part of a rap during a verse. In urban science
classrooms, it is useful for the teacher to engage in a similarly
complex use of inflection and volume during a lesson.

APPROACHING GENUINE CLASSROOM
COMMUNICATION FOR URBAN YOUTH
Unfortunately, in many urban schools that predominantly
serve students of color, the types of instruction described above;
that foster argumentation, and consider artifacts of hip-hop like the
battle and cypher are rarely implemented. In these schools, the
general perception of student participation, and the type of
practices that a ―ogod student‖ should be enacting are skewed
(Emdin, 2009). Teachers of hip-hop youth perceive students to be
actively involved, constructively participating, and behaving
appropriately when they enact behaviors that under normal
circumstances in students‘ out-of-school worlds would indicate a
lack of interest. For example, ethnographic studies in urban
classrooms show that in traditional urban science classes, students
are commended for blindly following instructions outlined by the
teacher, sitting quietly, and getting prescribed results to lab
assignments (Emdin, 2010). Conversely, students who do not talk
much in the class, and who spend the entire class period copying
notes are generally considered by teachers to be well behaved
while those who indicate a need or desire to engage (by using a lot
of gestures and speaking loudly) are considered to be a distraction
and reprimanded (Emdin, 2009).
I argue that viewing actions that normally indicate
disinterest outside of the classroom as active involvement or
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communication in the classroom creates a terrible confusion for
both the student and the teacher, and limits the students‘ ability to
be fully involved in science. Students begin to perceive that the
expected behavior in the classroom is to not question, to be quiet,
and to be passive. Consequently, students and teachers rarely get
to the point where fluid communication and argumentation
becomes a classroom norm. With the absence of communication
and argumentation, the achievement gaps in science persist
because students never get to the point where the subject matter
becomes important enough to engage in with the same passion and
excitement they express in hip-hop.
For students in urban science classrooms, who are for the most
part largely influenced by, or immersed in hip-hop, the separation
between their out-of-school and in-school worlds persists because
educators fail to recognize the connections between students‘
cultural understandings and science (Barton, 2001). When the
relationship between students and the teacher mirrors that of
power wielders and the powerless, and when teachers position
students‘ experience-based understandings as outside of school
science, students cannot be expected to have an interest in the
discipline. Furthermore, when the rule by force ideology that
dominates urban science teaching, and the current ethos of ―oding
science work‖ instead of discussing and engaging in science
continues to dominate urban teaching and learning, urban youth of
color who are immersed in hip-hop are at a disadvantage.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
For many educators, approaches to science teaching and
learning that utilize hip-hop culture may be perceived as
unconventional, inappropriate, and even unrealistic. However,
they are the key to connecting youth who have been marginalized
from academic success to school. If science education is to satisfy
the passions and interests of the hip-hop generation, educators
must be willing to withstand the pressure to maintain approaches
to instruction that historically have not met the needs of urban
youth, and explore new hip-hop based pedagogies that are more
reflective of student realities.
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For urban youth of color who are deeply immersed in hip-hop,
deep study of their culture, with the goal of identifying tools
within this culture that may support transformative pedagogical
practices is necessary for education reform. This requires moving
into new arenas in both urban and hip-hop based education,
accepting yet moving beyond rap based pedagogy, and moving
into disciplines like science where the instruction is stoic while the
discipline itself is deeply aligned to hip-hop.

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