Table Of ContentInternational Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education 2007, Volume 19, Number 2, 154-166
http://www.isetl.org/ijtlhe/ ISSN 1812-9129
Learning to Become Researching Professionals:
The Case of the Doctorate of Education
Alexis Taylor
Brunel University
This study investigates how learning to become a “researching professional” (Bourner, Bowden, &
Laing, 2000) is understood by students undertaking a professional Doctorate of Education in one
university in the United Kingdom (U.K.). This research is apposite given the present context for
doctoral education both internationally and in the U.K. However, a literature review shows this is a
relatively under-explored area. The study was designed within a phenomenological and
descriptive/interpretive paradigm using case study methodology. Data was collected using semi-
structured interviews with 12 students. The analysis was guided by research in other disciplines
within higher education which has revealed qualitatively different conceptions of student learning. In
this study, three ways of understanding learning to become a “researching professional” were
identified: conformity, capability, and becoming and being. Each is characterized by an internal
relationship between how the learning context, research, and professional identity are understood.
Each of these ways of understanding is discussed in relation to the literature. The complexity of
professional learning at the highest level for students who are “on the cusp” between the university,
the work context, and the profession is highlighted. Although no generalizations are made from this
study, it may be useful to others in similar contexts as it highlights implications for university tutors
regarding student learning.
In line with an international shift in higher relevance of pedagogy and curriculum, and to develop
education over the last decade, universities in the U.K. relationships with a range of partners.
have become part of the globalized knowledge market Doctoral education is set in the middle of this
(Tennant, 2004; Usher, 2002). This has resulted in the changing context for the university sector, and is
fragmentation of knowledge and an increasing subject to these wider imposed imperatives. Doctoral
emphasis on context-specific and problem-oriented education is the highest level of university education in
knowledge creation (Gibbons, Limoges, Notwotny, the U.K., seen most obviously in the traditional Ph.D.
Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow, 1994). Outside In recent years, however, as universities have had to
universities, research has developed in both government reconsider their position in the market place, several
and private enterprise, and, within universities, an new routes in doctoral education have emerged. These
increasing separation of research and teaching has include practice-based doctorates, new route Ph.D.s,
emerged. Two separate central government funding and doctorates by publication. Such diversity in
streams for teaching and research have increased doctoral education is to be encouraged, according to the
competition for research funding in the university UK Council for Graduate Education (UKCGE),
sector, affecting the types of research undertaken and because it extends the capacity to change and generates
increasing pressure on individual academic researchers opportunities to see research issues from different
and institutions to improve doctoral research training. perspectives. It also indicates an investment in the
Also, there is an increase in expectations of universities capacities and learning of more people and is enriching
for value for public money. The government has in terms of student diversity. Further, it has served to
introduced audit mechanisms for teaching effectiveness open up the traditional “binary” system of higher
and research quality, bringing increased accountability education in the U.K. as “older research-led”
and the emergence of a new academic managerialism. universities have become engaged in this new market
Further, in a bid to secure labor skills required for an (UKCGE, 2002).
enhanced future national economy, higher education in Within this context, and stemming originally from
the U.K. has been moved from an elite to a mass system America and Canada (Allen, Smyth, & Wahlstrom, M.,
from which students with transferable skills are 2002) early in the twentieth century, the professional
required. In short, the expectations of fitness for doctorate has emerged rapidly over the last decade both
purpose and cost effectiveness are challenging the in Australia and in the U.K. Professional doctorates are
autonomy and expertise traditionally enjoyed by research degrees for practitioners which combine higher
universities, questioning and bringing diversity to their learning with research in the workplace. Research is
traditional functions as producers and teachers of expert undertaken by practitioners in a professional context
knowledge. Such change brings pressure to universities with knowledge production arising from specific issues
to continually re-balance provision, to re-consider the identified in the workplace. Such research seeks to
Taylor Researching Professionals 155
make a difference to the profession, as well as having a population brought more risk in the management of
direct influence on the working lives of the doctoral programs. The similarities and differences
professionals. between Ph.D. and professional doctorates in education,
While seemingly at odds with the tradition in management, law and creative arts have been
universities that knowledge is pursued for its own sake, investigated by Malfroy (2005) in relation to doctoral
universities in the U.K. have successfully diversified supervision, workplace research and pedagogic
into this new area of professional doctoral education. practices.
Bourner, Bowden, and Laing (2001) note an A number of studies have emerged in the U.K.
approximate 20% increase in such degrees over a wide context, usually exploring the purpose of professional
range of disciplines - especially education, engineering doctorates. Thorne and Francis (2001) examined both
and business studies - with the Doctorate of Education Ph.D. and professional doctorates using an
(Ed.D.) having the largest market (UKCGE, 2002). ethnomethodological approach and found that diversity
Several reasons for this rapid development into of students’ career positions was not taken into account
professional doctorates can be identified. There has and that a homogeneous, rather than heterogeneous,
been an increase in growth in professional fields and a approach to doctoral study was taken in government
consequent increasing emphasis on professional recommendations. An underlying confusion about the
training and continuing professional development, with aims and mission of professional doctorates was found
many professions requiring advanced study as a pre- by Lunt (2002). Heath’s (2006) research with
service qualification. Professional work has become professional doctorates in education built on this notion
increasingly complex, with a need for professionals to of confusion by suggesting that considerable variation
have the ability to identify and solve problems at a high in the construction of doctorates in education relates to
level. Government priorities for improving the different values placed on knowledge which effect
professions have led to an increasing need for an matters such as supervision. Another study has
analytical approach to professional knowledge, work, addressed the notion of the development of capability.
and roles. Thus, professional doctorates have been Doncaster and Lester (2002) explored this with
given an increased emphasis, demonstrated, for reference to a generic work-based professional
example, by the U.K. Economic and Social Research doctorate, and emphasized the central role of
Council (ESRC, 2005) which has recently published experiential learning in developing high level capability
updated Postgraduate Training Guidelines (presently and motivation. The continuing professional and career
under review). In these guidelines, professional development of doctoral students including those on
doctorates have been given enhanced prominence, professional courses was explored by Leonard, Coate
including a requirement for consistency of standard in and Becker (2004). This study questioned the then
provision and quality with the traditional Ph.D. current national proposals to 'improve' doctoral
'training' in the UK by enhancing students'
The Literature employability suggesting that policy should be based on
the employment and other life needs of postgraduate
A review of the international literature reflects the students.
recent growth of professional doctorates in Australia Several studies have explored professional
and the U.K. In Australia, the focus seems to have been doctorates in relation to the traditional Ph.D. Tennant
issues relating to the development of professional (2004) argued that professional (working) knowledge is
doctorates. Maxwell (2003) working from three case seen by universities as additional to their more
studies explored the development of “second traditional Ph.D; the effect of which can still be seen in
generation” professional doctorates and the changes the professional doctorate in a number of ways. For
brought through this process. The changing example, the professional doctorate still remains
environment for doctoral education has also been focused within a traditional disciplinary area and
explored by Pearson (1999, who found that there were includes a traditional supervisor-student relationship.
implications for management, improvement, and Summative assessment by viva voce still
innovation. The key role of policy in encouraging dominates, even when formative portfolio assessments
diversity in doctoral education was explored by are included. The traditional Ph.D. concept of doctoral
Neumann (2002) especially in relation to issues of cost, enterprise as the production of the “independent,
concentration, and relevance. The growing diversity in autonomous scholars” as opposed to the “improved
doctoral degrees has also been related to the knowledge practitioner” still continues. Also, traditional funding
economy and imperatives for universities (Usher, 2002) mechanisms make it difficult to establish professional
and also to knowledge workers (Tennant, 2004). doctorates that focus on workplace problems. Tennant
McWilliam, Singh, and Taylor (2002) explored the (2004) and Usher (2002) both argue that the dominance
issue of whether diversity in doctoral student of the traditional Ph.D. route is not sustainable in a time
Taylor Researching Professionals 156
TABLE 1
Some Differences Between the Traditional Ph.D. and Professional Doctorates
Ph.D. Professional Doctorate
Research training through apprenticeship model Research training through taught program, with directed study, distance
learning, summer schools, collaborative work
Dyads of student/supervisor Teaching team /cohort of students
Supervision in university setting in relation to research Different mentors/supervisors for different elements of the program.
thesis, and supervisor as expert in discipline or subject or Supervisors may be experts in professional area as opposed to particular
area of research discipline. Also the possibility of supervision in the professional context
Entry following first degree Entry usually following Masters degree, and with required substantial
professional experience and appropriate professional qualification
Narrow, specialist focus on Mode 1 knowledge (Gibbons, Broad focus on Mode 2 knowledge (Gibbons, Limoges, Notwotny,
Limoges, Notwotny, Schwartzman, Scott, and Trow, 1994). Schwartzman, Scott, and Trow, 1994).
Assessment by outcome product of thesis, examined by Continuous assessment through course work, plus outcome product examined
viva by viva
Requirement for transferable skills in training Students already employed usually at a senior level in their profession.
Focus on research making a contribution to knowledge with Focus on research affecting professional practice as well as making a
wide dissemination contribution to knowledge, with focused dissemination
Ph.D. normally viewed as providing initial training for a The professional doctorate tends to be seen as higher study in terms of career
career in academia. change and development or the desire to consolidate their professional
experiential learning -
Norm referenced. Research projects defined at outset and Criteria referenced. Learning outcomes comprising professional skills and
long term focus knowledge. Research projects are defined at a later stage in program (similar
to Masters). Short term as well as long term strategic focus.
when the “new knowledge economy” is driving shifts doctorate routes appear not to be in competition but
in what constitutes an academic, what constitutes appear to be distinctive and alternative to each other.
knowledge, and what constitutes knowledge contexts. However, while the notion of the “researching
They both argue the universities should instead be professional” can be deemed to be intrinsically
reviewing similarities between the Ph.D. and worthwhile, it also indicates a number of complexities
professional doctorates as a way of reviewing the which present challenges for universities. Firstly, there
essential question of what constitutes legitimate is a complexity to the learning process brought by the
doctoral knowledge; both routes, for example, develop distinctive nature of professional doctorate programs.
new knowledge that contributes to the development of They are dedicated to having a direct influence on the
the professions (Malfroy & Yates, 2003), and both working lives of the students, who are motivated from
assume a sense of creativity, innovation, and the beginning of their course to improving their
enterprise (Tennant, 2004). professional practice. New types of knowledge and new
Others, however, maintain that the two routes are types of relationships brought by professional
essentially different. The essential difference could be doctorates were investigated by Scott, Brown, Lunt, and
that the professional doctorate is aimed at those Thorne (2004) across the three professional areas of
wanting to become “researching professionals” business, education and engineering. They found that
(Bourner, Katz & Watson, 2000) with the Ph.D. aimed they require a distinct and wide ranging body of
at those wanting to become “professional knowledge and skills concerned with continuing
researchers.” When the differences between the two professional development, emphasizing the inherent
routes are set out (see Table 1; Fink, 2006) this reflexivity needed for those on professional doctorates.
distinction can be seen clearly, identifying the Secondly, there is the complexity to the learning
professional doctorate as an alternative to the process as students are “on the cusp” of different
traditional and dominant Ph.D. route for advanced cultures of learning – the university, the profession and
work and study within a professional setting. Thus, the workplace (Malfroy & Yates, 2003). Such a
conceptually, at least, the Ph.D. and professional position gives professional doctorate students multiple
Taylor Researching Professionals 157
positions, without one research culture into which they Will research “training” rather than research
are to be inducted. Instead they work betwixt and “education” be emphasized? What is it that
between the different expectations and cultures of those universities engage in when they are involved
who face entirely different institutional contexts. While in professional doctoral education? Has there
challenges generate learning, there is a danger that any been a fundamental shift in the expectations of
conflicting demands will result in student learning universities in which the differences brought
being fragmented rather than being seamless and that by the professional doctorate are
students will experience a dissonance between theory acknowledged and developed? Have
and practice, thought and action. Rosaen and Schram universities fully recognized such diversity
(1998), for instance, talk about universities wanting and responded appropriately?
“transformative intellectuals” who will be agents of • the nature of the professional doctorate; How
change, while there is evidence that communities of is the professional research community
practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) succeed if they have understood? What is the nature and value of
the ability to continue to reproduce themselves by pedagogy? What is the relationship between
passing on their own skills and knowledge to the next those designated as “experts” in the
generation. professional context and those designated as
Thirdly, there is a complexity to the learning “experts” in the university context?
process because of the students themselves. Studies
have shown that professional doctorate students are In essence, then, the professional doctorate brings
shaped by experiences, and consequent values, that are to the forefront complexities and issues about
different than the traditional Ph.D. scholar (Miller & understanding student learning and, consequently,
Brimicombe, 2004). They tend to be studying part-time, teaching. However, there is a gap in investigations into
while in full-time employment. They have how learning and teaching in professional doctorates
responsibilities in the workplace and as a student, are understood and approached, especially from the
coupled with family and consequent financial student perspective.
commitments. Professional doctorate students tend to Yet, research undertaken independently in different
be mature and self-funded individuals (UKCGE, 2002), institutional contexts and countries in other disciplines
who consequently have high expectations. On one within higher education has consistently revealed that
hand, they tend to hold relatively senior positions in qualitatively different conceptions of learning and
their own profession, being high-achieving and teaching exist within a continuum (Prosser & Trigwell,
bringing with them extended expertise, experience, and 1999). Such research studies – stemming from
professional qualifications; thus, they can be more phenomenographic studies in Australia – have
expert than their supervisors in some aspects of identified a number of different ways in which students,
professional knowledge. On the other hand, they can be usually undergraduates, experience learning (Prosser &
deemed to be novices in research and higher level Trigwell, 1999). These include increasing knowledge,
study. Dissonance could occur when competing memorizing and reproducing, applying, understanding,
demands of both “hands” unfold. Thus, these variables seeing something in a different way, and changing as a
may affect how students construct the learning context person. The last category is usually advocated as the
and how they form their professional identity as a ultimate aim of higher education. Researchers (e.g.,
researching professional; both of which are central to Prosser & Trigwell, 1999) advocate that meaning is
their learning outcomes and an important consideration “constituted” through an internal relationship between
for university tutors. the individual and the world, with learning not being
The literature, therefore, shows there is a very real imposed externally on them but being defined as
complexity to learning to become a researching experiencing the object of study in a different way. In
professional at doctoral level. This complexity raises a such an approach for students, learning is related to a
number of questions for the following: number of interacting factors. These factors include
students’ approaches to learning (Marton & Saljo,
• student learning; What is learned? Why is 1997), students’ preconceptions (Gow & Kember,
such learning deemed to be important and by 1993), intended learning outcomes (Trigwell & Prosser,
whom? Do students learn to research only in 1991), and perceptions of the situation (Ramsden,
relation to their own particular professional 1992). These factors will either be in the foreground or
context? Will students be able to transfer their background of awareness for any individual within the
research learning to other professional learning context (Marton & Pang, 1999). For learning
contexts? to occur, the learner must experience variation. Bowden
• universities; What is the position and role of and Marton (1998) suggest that new contexts can
universities within professional doctorates? supply the variation.
Taylor Researching Professionals 158
The Problem evidence demonstrating that they can undertake
research in a professional setting and critically analyze
While studies into tertiary level learning have the issues relating to their research.
taken place across a range of subject disciplines, very Students also critically explore the wider issues
few have been undertaken in the context of related to their research area by undertaking an
professional university programs, and none have been extended piece of research using the micro setting of
found that deal with this at the doctoral research level. their own work context. An empirical research thesis
This study was designed to contribute to this perceived into a specialist area of their professional work which
gap in the literature by aiming to provide some they have problematized is also completed. Both of
conceptual understanding about how learning to these are “taught” in the traditional pedagogical
become a researching professional is understood by student/supervisor mode rather than with workplace
students. It is guided by the theoretical framework of partners and are examined at viva voce by academics,
qualitative variation in understanding learning and not practitioners, with appropriate qualifications and
teaching in higher education. Following this theoretical expertise in the topic area. The doctoral student cohort
perspective, this exploratory, small-scale intrinsic study also meets together for informal support meetings and
was designed to elicit and analyze the perceptions of on-line support is provided.
the students and identify the consensus and variation Most students tend to be part-timers with a
among the group of participants in the underlying maximum completion time of eight years with four
meaning of learning to become a researching years as a minimum. While the program is in
professional at the doctoral level. Therefore, the study education, senior managers, usually with at least 4
aimed to provide insight into this previously axiomatic years experience, from a wide range of related
situation and to provide results that would enable professions are welcomed onto the course, which
opportunities for the researcher and colleagues to includes students from youth work, physiotherapy
reflect on present policy and practice for the program. education, nurse education, management, health, social
work, police, higher education, and local government.
Methodology
The Participants
Approach
The study involved 12 students who were willing
Given the focus and purpose of the research, the to be involved and who represented the range of
study was designed to be phenomenological in nature experience within the wider student population in terms
and within a descriptive/interpretive paradigm. A case of gender, professional employment, length of time of
study methodology was considered appropriate. There program, and age (see Table 2). The number of
are limitations to this approach as it is not possible to participants may be considered low, but Trigwell
generalize to a larger population, but this was weighed (1994) cautions that more than 20 interviews provides
against greater attention to the lived experience of too much data to handle, and the number was thought to
participants within one particular context and the allow sufficient but not over-extensive data to be
possibility of providing “fuzzy” generalizations collected.
(Bassey, 1999, 2001) that those in other contexts may
find relevant. Further, the literature on research Data Collection Methods
methodology (Bassey, 1999; Hammersley, Gomm, &
Foster, 2000; Simons, 1996; Stake, 1995, 1998, 2000; Semi-structured interviews were conducted using
Yin, 1994) has served gradually to give case study three questions to standardize and focus the interviews.
methodology a higher profile in educational research. These questions concerned what being a student in the
program meant to them; what students thought learning
Research Context to research meant to them; and what they thought
helped them to learn to become a researching
The university in which the study was focused is a professional. Further questions were asked to enable
large older research-led university in the U.K., where at students to elaborate, and clarification was sought to
present the Ph.D. is the dominant doctoral route. The gain deeper insight into the underlying meaning. All
focus of this study – the Doctorate of Education – was interviews were recorded with participants’ permission.
governed by the procedures for the Ph.D. The program Interviews took approximately an hour but lasted
comprises a taught program of research methods taught longer if necessary with “bracketing” (Bowden, 1994)
in the university to a cohort of doctoral students, who used during the interviews and analysis. Confidentiality
are required to produce a doctoral level portfolio of was maintained throughout the study.
Taylor Researching Professionals 159
TABLE 2
Composition of the Selected Group of Participants
Gender Male 4
Female 8
Age Range 25-34 6
35-44 4
45-54 2
Ethnicity White 9
Black British 2
Asian 1
Professional Employment School teaching 6
Higher education teaching 2
Local educational authority work 1
Health 2
Youth work 1
Length of Time of Program 1 year 2
2 years 2
3 years 5
4 years 2
5 years 1
Analysis PowerPoint, and supported by directed reading and
structured tasks. Students wanted coverage of existing
The interviews were transcribed and were analyzed research studies and their findings. They perceived they
as a complete data set through an iterative process using had gained in knowledge about research if the material
an open-coding framework developed through the presented was research undertaken by the university
constant comparative method to identify emerging tutor who was teaching the session; if the material was
categories and sub-categories. Clustering and re- related to their own area of research interest; or the
clustering led to the emergence of different ways in research methodologies were akin to what they
which learning to become a researching professional perceived they would be using (both usually stemming
was experienced by the participant group as a whole. from their masters’ research interest). Usually students
Each way of understanding was given a key descriptor held a positivist approach to research and found it
to summarize and show the differences in perspective. difficult to accommodate alternative ontological and
This key descriptor was used to label the three ways of epistemological views. Students saw themselves as
understanding, namely conformity, capability, and functioning discretely in the university and in their
becoming and being. The key aspects of each are professional context. In the former they perceived of
described below with exemplification using extracts themselves as students and novices, while in their
from the interview data. professional work setting they saw themselves as
experts. Student A explained this idea:
Conformity
For me it’s about obtaining an objectivity. The
Here, students were interested in knowing how to more I’m told about research the more removed I
research, with a focus on receiving information about become from my professional stance. I suppose it’s
research studies and practical knowledge of research because when I go into a classroom I know those
techniques and methods. There is a preference for this 30 children as individuals – they mean something
to be presented by expert university tutors in an to me. I know what to do about them. But I become
organized and structured way through lectures, use of removed from that when I do research. I’m not
Taylor Researching Professionals 160
involved emotionally so it’s easy to separate the It was a challenge at first after 20 odd years in the
two …when I’m here [at the university] I see workplace. Getting back into studying was hard,
myself as a different person but not so certain of but the more I continued with it the more sense it
what to do! made to me in school. So I struggled, but I could
use it in school, finding out things to help me do
As novices in the university context, students felt better in the classroom.
vulnerable when they presented work to university
staff. This sometimes led to conflict when they felt And student C stated:
supervisors wanted them to be autonomous and when
students wanted to receive clear instructions and expert The pure theoretical stuff for a lot of us who have
knowledge. Work load was perceived as heavy, and been in the workplace for a considerable time and
students found it difficult to keep up with their research have a day job wasn’t that useful…the applied stuff
work and professional obligations. Although they is far more relevant to me, and if I read subject
managed the difficulty by keeping the two aspects journals that relate to the day job I see the point
separate. Reading of the literature and research data more. It’s a thought process I need to develop. It’s
gathered for assignments would be used for this not a workplace qualification, but it’s challenging
purpose without necessarily informing or impacting on to make the connections between theory and
professional practice. They felt they were “still the practice.
same person as they had been at the start of the course”
(Student D), but they now knew more about research. In spite of the senior positions students held in their
The doctoral qualification in its own right was an workplace, they felt positioned as novice students in the
important outcome of being in the program. This would relationship with their expert supervisors. For students
enhance their esteem with work colleagues and lead to in this category, this presented a dilemma of inequality
promotion/career development in the same or another and role conflict, as they saw themselves as experts in
professional setting. the professional field with comparable, if different,
skills to the academics. However, tutorials with
Capability university teachers, perceived as experts in research,
helped to develop students’ research ideas and methods.
In terms of capability, students talked about being Students acknowledged the transactional nature of the
motivated by the program and wanted to “try out” program, understanding that it was helping them as
different research techniques. Students were interested individuals to “do things better” in their professional
in engaging in research in their professional setting and setting, to reflect on their individual practice, and to try
felt that they were developing competence in a variety out alternatives. Students felt that they made their own
of methods through application of expert knowledge. connections between what they learned at the university
Students liked receiving “solid” information about about research and their individual professional work.
research studies and methods, but they also identified Usually sharing their research ideas and work was kept
with other methods of teaching. Both presentation of to a minimum with professional colleagues in their own
their research work and peer discussion were useful to work setting. Although students felt that their identity
them as vehicles in which they could articulate their in the workplace was changing in the eyes of
research area to themselves and others while sharing professional colleagues, with some feeling more
these ideas with other professionals. Students confident in the work setting and others feeling a sense
welcomed newly acquired alternatives to their own of “moving beyond” their professional colleagues.
epistemological and ontological views; although they
often held these in balance, opting for one approach but Becoming and Being
appreciating other approaches. Student C stated, “I can
listen to different views and engage in them. I With becoming and being, students thought and
understand them, but I need always to return to them.” acted critically about the principles and practice of
Connections were made between the university research. They made connections with the program and
program and their work in the professional context, the research they undertook in their workplace. They
both conceptually and in reality. They saw themselves spoke of finding “the journey of learning to research”
both as experts in knowledge and experience of their (Student K) not easy, often going backwards, often a
own professional context and as learners in research, struggle, but they were motivated to continue because it
but they understood that the weighting given to these made them exhilarated and excited to work on a
identities would be balanced in favor of where they problem and find a way through it. It helped them to
found themselves physically: the university or contextualize a specific professional problem within a
professional setting. Student E said: political, managerial, and financial context which they
Taylor Researching Professionals 161
had not perceived previously. Student E described the initiative in both professional and university settings
contextualization as follows: and being able to work in different ways with different
people, thus establishing for themselves a new identity.
Where I work recently they wanted to bring in Students could envisage that they were changing as a
some changes in the structure. They brought out person in both the university and professional settings,
these different ideas they wanted to hang these albeit with different matters fore-grounded when in
changes on and I was able to identify some of the either place.
theories and ask them what is it they wanted to
achieve from [these changes], and what effect they Conclusions
would have on staff. So I was able to challenge
them about it. I couldn’t have done, wouldn’t have, Three different ways of understanding –
done that before [beginning the Doctorate of conformity, capability, and becoming and being – were
Education]… They are starting from one reality, identified. Each is characterized by an internal
and I have a different reality now. relationship between how research, the learning
context, and professional identity are understood.
They wanted to think critically about generic Conformity focuses on students knowing about
professional practices and also about generic research research, with them viewing this within the traditional
methods. However, students here felt that the research apprenticeship model of doctoral education; that is, a
they undertook raised further questions and that there transmission approach with the passing on by university
was “never an end.” That is, doing research in their experts to novices of technical expertise, with an
professional setting identified further areas to research. emphasis on personal and individual research
As student D said, “Suddenly everything becomes a competence, demonstrated through thesis and award.
problem.” The aim appears to be to generate knowledge for its
As they became more expert in research and as own sake and to develop individual students’ practical
researchers, they became enhanced learners in and and professional experience and achievement of
about their profession. In this way they felt there was personal theory of practice. With regard to the doctoral
room for personal growth as well as professional work, there is an irreducibility of learning in the
growth and growth in the profession. They engaged professional workplace in favor of learning in the
actively in their own learning through setting and university. Learning is seen as an intellectual, personal
influencing the implementation of their own pursuit with a separation of student identity and role as
professional research agendas. Students spoke about expert/learner. In this category, the professional
generating knowledge to find solutions to problems in doctorate appears as a specialist form of the Ph.D.
their professional context through critical engagement program aimed at advancing new knowledge in the
with research literature, working with university staff, field and is seen as distinguished from the Ph.D. only in
and collaborating with professional colleagues, often structural elements, for example, the research methods
senior managers. Students also felt a collaborative program taught to cohorts which students found
relationship with their university supervisor. In this supportive. Supervision is viewed in its traditional
way they were able to focus in a holistic way on their form. The site of learning about research is the
learning, making connections between the university university, which is perceived as where students receive
and workplace. Thus, they felt able to collaborate in expert theory and the professional setting is perceived
the development of their “community of practice” as where they implement and demonstrate the
(Lave & Wenger, 1991) by combining a diverse range application of this. A linear approach involving a one-
of views. Student J articulated this feeling: way relationship between research and practice is
evident. Students work as researchers on a practice
I can read an article now and say OK. Then, situation rather than as part of the situation: they
they’re coming from this perspective and say, perceive themselves as researchers who are outside the
“That’s interesting I never thought about it in that research and its context, even when they are
way before.” I ask now why they think that, and undertaking research in their own professional context,
I’ll discuss it with [name of university tutor] and bringing a new dimension to the concept of
some colleagues at school. outsider/insider research. This suggests a separation of
the learning experience and that learning to become
Students in this category spoke about having researching professionals is not conceptualized as a
increased confidence in their own thoughts and whole. While this may underline traditional divisions
decisions, and of being able to understand the between (a) universities and the professions, (b) theory
alternative viewpoints of others. They spoke of taking and practice, (c) thought and action, and (d) research
Taylor Researching Professionals 162
and practice, such dichotomies are not necessarily suggests student empowerment, potential, and
characteristics of researching professionals or of emancipation.
professional doctorates.
Capability focuses on students’ individual activity, Implications
experience, skills and techniques; in other words, on
“doing” research. Research is part of the self- No attempt is made to generalize from this study,
management of students’ own personal practice context which must be treated with some caution due to its
and is undertaken for the specific purpose of exploratory and small-scale nature. However, given
understanding and improving students’ own this, several implications emerge that may be relevant
professional practice. Research is seen as an to universities working with professional doctorates in
intervention, with a view to improving practice in one’s a changing context for higher education. One
own personal context. Thus, doctoral work assists in implication is that the findings of this study link with
articulating previously tacit knowledge, although high existing literature on student epistemology. Perry
level thinking and action is developed around the (1970) indicated that students in an undergraduate
chosen area of research. There is a familiarity with local liberal arts program developed progressively more
issues and an interest in pursuing research around a intricate epistemological beliefs as they progressed
local problem in order to improve practice. Knowledge through their program. Perry described these as
is created and used by practitioners in the contexts of dualism, multiplism, relativism and commitment. In
their own personal professional practice. In this way addition to Perry, Baxter Magolda (2001) suggested
knowledge is viewed as contextual. The site of learning different ways of knowing, termed absolute,
is both the university and the workplace, but there is a transitional, independent and contextual, and identified
balancing of student identity according to the physical a gender difference within these different ways of
location of student. knowing.
This is in contrast to becoming and being where The possible continuum of different theoretical
learning to become a researching professional is viewed awareness of learning to become a researching
as a holistic experience in which there is a variety of professional identified in this study is also similar to
learning contexts which provide the student with previous research in higher education (Prosser &
variation to develop conceptually and change Trigwell, 1999) which has identified levels of
themselves. Personal research capability is secondary to understanding learning in a variety of discipline areas in
the ability it gives to creating development and change higher education. It is possible that there may be a
in a generic sense. This way of understanding is vertical relationship between the three different ways of
characterized by engagement in a process of critical understanding identified in this present study,
enquiry, generating ideas, with knowledge shared and progressing from a simplistic to a more complex
generated so that principle and practice, individuals and understanding of learning to become a researching
groups, and contexts can change. Doctoral work is seen professional. This study suggests students range from
as aiming to develop theory, in which the research being passive recipients of knowledge about research
process and practitioner is central but which is of value methods and research studies, engaging in the process
beyond students’ own organization and community. of research, and becoming and being active agents in
Research and practice co-exist in a spiral relationship, creating their own research agenda to develop their own
so that practitioners can move beyond taken for granted professional and personal learning. Supervisors/tutors
assumptions. Research is seen as systematic are viewed differently, ranging from the expert
questioning of specific and general problems. The possessing research knowledge and skills and
university is seen as part of this spiral. This suggests a transmitting this to students, supervisors/tutors
deep approach to learning in which students providing experiences which support students in
“constitute” meaning through an internal relationship undertaking their own research in the professional
between the individual and the world, and, thus, setting, and supervisors/teachers acting as facilitators of
experience researching professional contexts in a the process of student learning to become researching
different way. Students generally adopt an active and professionals. The impact varies from one in which the
reflective role in their own learning. Becoming and student benefits, to the particular micro work setting
being is based on a deeper reflection that brings about benefiting, to potentially impacting on the macro
the development of personal identity for the student and workplace and even the wider profession of the student.
change in professional practice in the wider sense as the It is contended here that professional doctorates should
practitioner leads high level development and change seek, not to reduce learning to a set of knowledge and
on an institutional basis. In this way dilemmas and skills (conformity: level 1) or to a focus on practice
contradictions of professional practice are held in (capability: level 2), but to promote learning which
tension moving beyond this to create solutions. This moves beyond these to “know, act and be” (Barnacle,
Taylor Researching Professionals 163
2004): a way of understanding learning that touches teaching and students’ approaches to learning. It is
upon all aspects of a person’s life – a critical way of suggested that university tutors will need to consider
being. This is identified in this study as becoming and and confront their own perceptions of what learning to
being (level 3). Assuming, then, that this way of become a researching professional means to them and
understanding (level) is the one to be aimed for, it is what they understand by the learning context, by
suggested that professional doctorates should bring research, and by professional identity. Indeed, for
about a way of moving students to this more complete them to take a deep approach to these matters which
level by enabling them to understand their own may, as a consequence, lead to changing themselves
development as researching professionals. Thus, it as they strive proactively to manage student learning.
may be incumbent for those responsible for Fourth, such an approach challenges us to think
professional research training to help students enhance about the purpose of professional doctorates. What
this approach. this study suggests is that professional doctorates are
Several suggestions about how this can be valued by students for their transformative, as well as
achieved are identified briefly here. First, the teaching transactional, capacity to change individuals as well as
and the teaching context will need to be organized to to do things better so that thinking and doing are
enable students to become aware of the demands of treated as inseparable, each informing and improving
the program and to take a deep, as opposed to a the other. This implies professional doctorates are
surface, approach to learning to become a researching values-based, and are about students acquiring a set of
professional. This has implications for the structure attitudes, such as altruism, to the professional
and content of the program, the teaching methods, the community in which they work and the wider
research supervision arrangements, and the viva voce profession beyond. Thus, there may be an ethical
examination. purpose to professional doctorates based on personal
The second suggestion is that teaching and the development and change in becoming and being a
teaching context will need to be based on a rationale researching professional.
that focuses on students’ learning about themselves Lastly, then, this has consequences for the
(Prosser & Trigwell, 1999): beliefs about themselves relationship between universities and professionals.
as learners and how they may relate to and act on Both have complementary, if different, knowledge,
factors which may affect their progress. Helping expertise, and authority; this study highlights the
students to see learning to become a researching tension between practitioner relevance and academic
professional in a different way may help them to make rigor in a professional research degree. This has
more informed and considered decisions about the implications for how students and universities tutors
learning context, research, and their own professional work together and how they can collaboratively
identity. Helping students problematize and search for contribute to knowledge development. In this way,
personal meaning by adopting a critical approach may universities form part of the catalyst in the
help them to see matters in a different way and to development of the knowledge base for professional
develop coping strategies to overcome any perceived practice with knowledge and practice interacting
barriers and problems while on the course. through research. Thus, in this way this study
This also raises the issue of differences between challenges the traditional dichotomy between research
students’ understanding and that of universities, their and practice; theory and action; and suggests the need
tutors, and how these are presented in course aims and to review university expectations for professional
teaching. Thus, thirdly, this places a special doctorates with respect to the development of the
responsibility on those in universities who are relationship between the university and the
engaged in professional doctorates to look again at the professional context. In short, this highlights a number
way we work. Consequently, how we understand and of questions, beyond the scope of this paper,
approach teaching on professional doctoral programs concerning the role of the university in fostering this
is an important consideration. Some work is way of working. What is the learning and teaching
developing in this area. For example, the Carnegie community involved in professional doctoral
Project on the Education Doctorate (Golde & Walker, programs? What is the relationship between those
2006) is looking at the purpose of doctoral education deemed to be experts and learners in the university
in the preparation of students to become “stewards of and professional contexts? Should professional
the discipline.” doctoral programs be developed in partnership?
While this study did not look at university tutors, Should supervisors visit students’ professional
recent studies (Prosser & Trigwell, 1999) in other contexts to engage in joint research? Should there be
university discipline areas have indicated an empirical professional supervisors? What is the relationship
relationship between university tutors’ views of between universities and professional bodies?
