Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History

272 Pages·2001·31.68 MB·English

by  Susan E. Alcock

EMPIRES
Perspectives [roIn Archaeology and History
Edited by
Susan E. Alcock
Terence N. D'Altroy
I(athleen D. Morrison
Carla M. Sinopoli
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Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 0521 770203 (hb)
1. Imperialism - History. I. Alcock, Susan E.
JC359.E46 2001 930-<lc21 00·063074
ISBN 0521 770203 hardback
Contents
page ix
List of figures
List of tables Xlll
Notes on the contributors xiv
xvii
Preface
Carla M. Sinopoli and Tercnce N. DJAltroy
PART I SOURCES, APPROACHES, DEFINITIONS 1
Kathlecn D. Morrison
1 The shadow empires: imperial state formation along the
Chinese-Nomad frontier 10
Thomas]. Barfield
2 Written on water: designs and dynamics in the Portuguese
Estado da fndia 42
Sanjay Subrahmanyam
3 The Wari empire of Middle Horizon Peru: the epistemological
challenge of documenting an empire without documentary
evidence 70
Katharina Schreiber
4 The Achaemenid Persian empire (c. 550-c. 330 BCE):
93
continuities, adaptations, transformations
Amclie Kuhrt
125
PART II EMPIRES IN A WIDER WORLD
Tercnce N. DJAltroy
5 The Aztec empire and the Mesoamerican world system 128
Michael E. Smith
6 On the edge of empire: form and substance in the Satavahana
155
dynasty vii
Carla M. Sinopoli
Contents
Vlll
7 Dynamics of imperial adjustment in Spanish America: ideology
and social integration 179
Kathleen Deagan
Figures
PART III IMPERIAL INTEGRATION AND IMPERIAL SUBJECTS 195
Carla M. Sinopoli
8 Politics, resources, and blood in the Inka empire 201
Terence N. DJAltroy
9 Egypt and Nubia 227
Robert Morlwt
10 Coercion, resistance, and hierarchy: local processes and imperial
strategies in the Vijayanagara empire 252 1.1 Steppe empires of Central Asia. 11
1.2 Kazak timber graves near the Mongolian border in an older 12
Kathleen D. Morrison
graveyard marked by an ancient stone stele with an incised human
face. (A1tai Mountains, Xinjiang, Peoples Republic of China,
PART IV IMPERIAL IDEOLOGIES 279
Susan E. Alcock and Kathleen D. MOYl'ison July 1987 © Thomas Barfield).
1.3 Xiongnu owed their strength to their cavalry. (Kazak nomads, 13
11 Aztec hearts and minds: religion and the state in the Aztec
A1tai Mountains, Xinjiang, Peoples Republic of China, July
empire 283
1987 © Thomas Barfield.)
Elizabeth M. Brtmifiel
1.4 Among the Kazaks, keeping hunting eagles, who some claim 16
12 Inventing empire in ancient Rome 311 were once used in battle, fits this ideal of a fierce warrior people.
Greg Woolf (A1tai Mountains, Xinjiang, Peoples Republic of China, July
1987 © Thomas Barfield.)
13 The reconfiguration of memory in the eastern Roman empire 323
1.5 The combination of Chinese silk into a sheepskin hat worn by 20
Susan E. Alcocll
traditionally dressed Kazak men in northwestern China today is
14 Cosmos, central authority, and communities in the early Chinese an example of the long-term historic relation between China and
empire 351 the steppe nomads. (Altai Mountains, Xinjiang, Peoples
Robin D. S. Yates Republic of China, J lily 1987 © Thomas Bm·field.)
2.1 The Portuguese empire in Asia, c. 1500-1700 C E. 46
PART V THE AFTERLIFE OF EMPIRES 369 2.2 Cathedral ofBom Jesus, Goa. (Photograph by K. D. Morrison 48
Susan E. Alcoclz
and C. Sinopoli.)
15 The f.111 of the Assyrian empire: ancient and modern 2.3 Fort ChapOl·a, Goa. (Photograph by K. D. Morrison and C. 56
interpretations 374 Sinopoli.)
Mario LiJJerarli 3.1 The Wari empire. 75
3.2 A partial site plan of the planned enclosure at Jincamocca, a 82
16 The Carolingian empire: Rome reborn? 392
provincial Wari site.
John More/and
3.3 A view of Pikillaqta, in which the central open patios and 83
17 Cuzco, another Rome? 419 surrounding narrow galleries can be clearly seen.
Sabine MacCormaclz 3.4 The large-scale, imperial architecture ofPikillaqta preserves its 84
rigid grid layout.
Notes 436 3.5 The central core ofPikillaqta. 87
4.1 The Achaemenid empire. 96
References 448
4.2 Trilingual inscription and relief of Dm·ius I, carved in the cliff at 99
Index 508 IX
Behistun.
x List off igures List off igures xi
4.3 Rock-cut tomb of Darius I at Naqsh-i Rustam, near Persepolis. 104 11.3 In Tenochtitlan, commoners offer blood-covered sedges and 291
4.4 Two groups of subject peoples (Elamites and Armenians) 106 maize gruel (atole) in their houses during the fourth montll of
bringing gifts to the Icing. the Aztec solar calendar. (Sahagun 1981: 61 and illustration 13;
4.5 Royal Hero stabbing lion; west door of "Harem," Persepolis. 108 courtesy of the School of American Research and the University
4.6 Funerary stele from tlle Persian period, found at Saqqara. 122 of Utah).
5.1 The Aztec empire and the Mesoamerican world system. 136 11.4 In Tenochtitlan, the boys of the telpochcalli fight a mock battle 295
5.2 Aztec soldiers wearing jaguar skin costumes and carrying 138 with the boys of the call1'lecacs. (Sahaglll1 1981: 149 and
obsidian edged swords (after Sahag6n 1950-82, Bk 8, Fig. 78). illustration 52; courtesy of the School of American Research and
5.3 Aztec professional pochteca merchants (after Sahaglll1 1950-82, 141 the University of Utah.)
Bk. 9, Figs. 13 and 3). 11.5 In Tenochtitlan, a war captive without physical blemish was 300
5.4 The location of MOl·elOS witllin central Mexico. 147 chosen to impersonate the god Tezcatlipoca for a year. (Sahaglll1
5.5 Aztec peasant houses at Capilco, MOl·elOS. 148 1981, illustration 5; courtesy of the School of American
5.6 Ceramic tools used to spin cotton. 149 Research and the University of Utah.)
5.7 Mean ceramic frequencies through time. 153 11.6 Dancers in the Aztec ruler's palace. (Sahaglll1 1981: 123-4 and 301
6.1 Capital of Asokan lion-headed column from Sarnath (after 158 Sahaglll1 1979, illustration 69; courtesy of the School of
Allchin 1995: 255). American Research and the University of Utah.)
6.2 Asokan inscriptions and Mauryan geography. 160 11.7 In Tepepolco, rituals associated with the sixth month of the solar 304
6.3 Major monastic sites and settlements of tlle Early Historic 165 calendar. (Sahaglll1 1979:59; drawing by M. LaNoue.)
Deccan. 11.8 An Aztec-period ceramic figurine of a woman holding two 306
7.1 The Spanish American empire c. 1700 C E. 180 children. Musee de l'Homme, Paris (drawing by M. LaNoue).
8.1 Andean region encompassed by Tawantinsuyu, including the 202 12.1 The Roman empire at the death of Augustus, 14 C E. 312
principal Andean subregions mentioned in the text. 13.1 The eastern Roman empire in the early imperial period. 324
8.2 The principal roads of the Inka royal highway system. (Mter 211 13.2 The Athenian agora in the second century C E. (Courtesy of the 335
Hyslop 1984: flyleaf.) American School of Classical Studies at Athens.)
8.3 Distribution of the colonist artisan settlements described in the 217 13.3 Reconstruction of the Athenian agora in the second century CE. 336
text. (Courtesy of the American School of Classical Studies at
8.4 Distribution of the principal royal estates in the Cuzco region, 219 Athens.)
Peru. 13.4 Torso of a large marble statue of the emperor Hadrian 339
8.5 Distribution of the terraced lands in Pachakuti's royal estate at 222 (117-138 C E) fC:Hlnd in the excavations of the Athenian agora.
Cusichaca. (Modified fr0111 Kenda1l1994: fig. 3.) (Courtesy of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.)
8.6 Distribution of some of the principal state f.1rms, provincial 224 13.5 Reconstructed view of the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias. 340
estates, and storage facilities throughout Tawantinsuyu. (Courtesy of the Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies
9.1 Lower Nubia. 233 and R. R. R. Smith.)
9.2 Upper Nubia. 236 13.6 Sculpted panel from the Sebastcion at Aphrodisias: the emperor 341
10.1 The Vijayanagara empire. 254 Claudius subdues the province of Britannia. (Col\l'tesy of the
10.2 The Tiruvengalanatha temple in a canal irrigated zone of the 264 Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies and R. R. R.
Vijayanagara imperial capital. Smith. )
10.3 Locations of the Valangai-Idangai revolt in the Tamil provinces 270 13.7 A view oftol\l'ist traffic in modern day Ephesos. (From G. 343
of the Vijayanagara empire. Wiplinger and G. Wlach, Ephesus: 100 Years ofA ustrian
11.1 The Aztec empire in 1519. 285 Research.)
11.2 War captives and slaves were sacrificed at state temples to nourish 288 13.8 Reconstruction of the northeast corner of the Parthenon in 344
the sun with human blood. (Sahaglll1 1981, illustration 52; Roman times. (© by Ernst Wasmuth Verlag, Tiibingen/
courtesy of the School of American Research and the University Germany. )
of Utah.) 14.1 The Qin empire. 352
List off igures
Xll
15.1 The Assyrian empire, c. 860 BCE. 375
15.2 The Assyrian empire, c. 730 B CE. 376
15.3 The Assyrian empire, c. 705 BCE. 377
15.4 The Assyrian empire, c. 640 BCE. 378
Tables
16.1 The Carolingian empire, c. 800 CE, including the border 394
regions.
16.2 Reconstruction of the palace at Ingelheim. 397
16.3 The gatehouse at Lorsch. 403
16.4 The apse mosaic at Germigny-des-Pres. (Courtesy 00. Feuillie 405
and Caisse Nationale des Monuments Historiques et des Sites
© CNMHS)
16.5 Schematic plan of the palace at Aachen. 406
16.6 Central and southern Italy, c. 750 CE. 409 1.1 Cycles of rule: major dynasties in China and the steppe empires 23
16.7 Abbot Joshua's "monastic city" at San Vincenzo al Volturno. 410 in Mongolia
1.2 Xiongnu visits to the Han court 28
2.1 Casado settlements in Portuguese Asia, 1635 47
2.2 Ecclesiastical orders in Asia, 1635 49
4.1 Regnal years of the kings of Persia 94
4.2 Achaemenid empire: chronology of main political events 95
5.1 Chronology for Postclassic central Mexico 129
5.2 Archaeological criteria for the identification of empires 131
6.1 A short chronology for the Satavahana dynasty 167
8.1 Conventional list ofInka emperors 205
9.1 Comparative chronology: Egypt and Nubia 231
11.1 Commoners' household rituals during the eighteen months 289-90
of the Aztec solar year
11.2 Ritual activities in the calpulcos during the eighteen montl1s of 292
the Aztec solar year
11.3 Activities for telpochcalli youths dlll'ing the eighteen months of 294
the Aztec solar year
11.4 Mock battles dlll'ing the eighteen months of the Aztec solar year 297
11.5 Warriors' activities dlll'ing the eighteen months of the Aztec 298-9
solar year
16.1 Principal rulers mentioned in the text, with their period of rule 393
and "ethnic affiliation"
xiii
Notes on the contributors xv
American Cultural Genesis in the Early Spanish American Colonies," joumal of
Anthropological Research 52 (1996).
AInelie Kuhrt is Professor of AIlCient History at University College London. Her
Notes on the contributors
recent major publications include: Achaemenid History 2-4, 6, 8 (co-editor,
1987-94); Hellenism in the East (co-author, 1987); From Samarkand to Sardis:
A New Approach to Seleucid History (co-author, 1993); The Ancient Near East,
c.3000-330BC(1995).
Mario Liverani is Professor in the History of the Ancient Near East at the
University of Rome. His recent major publications include: Antico Oriente.
Storia economia societa (1988); Prestige and Interest. International Relations in
Susan E. Alcock is Associate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics at the Near East, ca. 1600-1100 BC (1990); Studies in the Annals ofA shumasirpal
the University of Michigan. Her recent major publications include: Graecia II (1992); AflIlad, the First World Empire (editor, 1993); Neo-Assyrian Geography
Capta: The Landscapes of Roman Greece (1993); Placing the Gods: Sanctuaries (editor, 1995).
and Sacred Space in Ancient Greece (co-editor, 1994); The Early Roman Empire
in the East (editor, 1997); Pausanias: n'aJ'el and Memory in Roman Greece (co Sabine G. MacCormack is the Mary AIm and Charles R. Walgreen Professor for
editor, 2001). the Study of Human Understanding, Professor of Classical Studies, and
Professor of History at the University of Michigan. Her recent major publica
Thomas J. Barfield is Professor of Anthropology at Boston University. His recent tions include: Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity ( 1981); Religion in the Andes:
major publications include: The Perilous F1'ontier: Nomadic Empires and China Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru (1991); The Shadows of Poetry:
(1989); Afghanistan: An Atlas of Indigenous Domestic Architectttl'e (co-author, Vet;gil in the Mind ofA ugustine (1998).
1991); The Nomadic Alternatil'e (1993); The Dictionary ofA nthropology (exec
utive editor). John MOI'eland is Senior Lecturer in Medieval Archaeology at the University of
Sheffield. His recent major publications include: "Integration and Social
Elizabeth M. Brumfiel is the John S. Ludington Trustees' Professor of Reproduction in the Carolingian Empire," World Archaeology 23 (co-author,
Anthropology and Sociology at Albion College. Her recent major publications 1992); "The Middle Ages: Theory and Post-modernism," Acta Al'chaeologica
include: Specialization, Exchange and Complex Society (co-editor, 1987); 68 (1997); "The World(s) of the Cross," World Archaeology 31 (1999).
"Breaking and Entering the Eco-system - Gender, Class and Faction Steal the
Show," American Anthropologist 94 (1992); Factional Competition and Political Robert MOI'kot is an independent scholar. His recent major publications include:
Del'elopment in the New World (editor, 1994). CentU1'ies of Darkness (co-author, 1991); The Blaclz Pharaoh: Egypt's Nubian
Rulers (2000).
Terence N. D'Altroy is Associate Professor of Anthropology at Columbia
University. His recent major publications include: Prol'irlcial Power in the In/la Kathleen D. Morrison is Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University
Empire (1992); "Comments: Rc-thinking Complex Prehistoric Societies in of Chicago. Her recent major publications include: "Dimensions of Imperial
Asia," Asian Perspectipes: Special No., Landscapes of Power (1994); "Recent Control: The Vijayanagara Capital," American Anthropologist 97 (co-author,
Research in the Central Andes," joumal ofA rchaeological Research 5 (1997). 1995); Fields of Victory: Vijayanagara and the Course of Intensification (1995,
repr. 2000); "Typological Schemes and Agricultural Change: Beyond Boserup
K.'lthleen Deagan is Distinguished Research Curator and Joint Protessor of in South India," Current Anthropology 37 (1996); "Inscriptions as Artifacts:
Anthropology and History at the University of Florida. Her recent major pub Precolonial South India and the Analysis of Texts," jottmal of Archaeological
lications include: Artifacts of the Spanish Colonies (1988); Puel'to Real: The Method and Theory 3 (co-author, 1997).
Archaeology of a Sixteenth Century Spanish Town in Hispaniola (1995); "From
Contact to Criollo: The Archaeology of Spanish Colonization in Hispaniola," Katharina Schreiber is Professor of Anthropology at the University of California,
xiv
Proceedings oft he British Academy 81 (1995); "Colonial Transtormations: Euro- Santa Barbara. Her recent major publications include: "Conquest and
XVI Notes on the contributors
Consolidation: A Comparison of the Wari and Inka Occupations of a Highland
Peruvian Valley," American Antiquity 52 (1987); Wari Imperialism in Middle
Horizon Peru (1992); "The Puquios of Nasca," Latin American Antiquity 6
(1995 ).
Preface
Carla M. Sinopoli is Associate Professor of Anthropology and Associate Curator,
Museum of Anthropology, at the University of Michigan. Her recent major pub Carla M. Sinopoli and Terence N. D'Altroy
lications include: Approaches to Archaeological Ceramics (1991); Pots and
Palaces: The Earthenware Ceramics of the Nobleman's Quarter of Vijayanagara
(1993); "The Archaeology of Empires," Annual ReJlielll of Anthropology 23
(1994); "From the Lion Throne: Political and Social Dynamics of the
Vijayanagara Empire," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
43 (2000). Like many collaborative scholarly works, this project had its origins in a bar. At
the 1994 meetings of the American Anthropological Association, three of us
Michael E. Smith is Professor of Anthropology at the University of Albany, State (Morrison, D'Altroy, and Sinopoli) discussed our longstanding interests in the
University of New York. His recent major publications include: Archaeological comparative study of empires; Susan Alcock joined the discussion a few months
Research at Aztec-Period Rural Sites in Morelos, Mexico, I: Excavations and later during the 1995 meetings of the Society for American Archaeology. We
Architecture (1992); Economies and Polities in the Aztec Realm (co-editor, concurred that the time was right to organize a conference that would bring
1994); Aztec Imperial Strategies (co-author, 1996); The Aztecs (1996). together archaeologists, classicists, cultural anthropologists, and historians to
speak to and with each other about research on specific empires and about more
Sanjay Subrahmanyam is Directeur d'etudes at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes en general issues relevant to the comparative study of empire and imperialism. And
Sciences Sociales. His recent major publications include: The Political Economy like many projects conceived in bars, this one has taken a while to come to a head.
of Commerce: Southern India, 1500-1650 (1990); Symbols of Substance: Court This volume is the outgrowth of the conference "Imperial Designs:
and State in Nayaka-Period Tamilnadu (co-author, 1992); The Portuguese Comparative Dynamics of Early Empires," held in Mijas, Spain in the autumn of
Empire in Asia, 1500-1700 (1993); The Career of Vas co da Gama (1997); The 1997 and sponsored by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological
Mughal State, 1526-1750 (co-editor, 1997). Research as their International Symposium #122. It contains revised versions of
all seventeen papers presented at the conference, almost all of them substantially
Greg Woolfis Professor of Ancient History at the University of St. Andrews. His altered as a result of six days of formal and informal discussions.
recent major publications include: Literacy and Power in the Ancient World (co The geographic and temporal range of the papers is deliberately broad, as are
editor, 1994); "Becoming Roman, Staying Greek: Culture, Identity and the the intellectual perspectives of their authors. The papers explore polities from
Civilizing Process in the Roman East," Proceedings oft he Cambridge Philological both the Old and New Worlds and span early prehistoric empires through later
Society 40 (1994); "Monumental Writing and the Expansion of Roman Society historic empires, including the problematic early modern period and the first
in the Early Empire," Journal of Roman Archaeology 86 (1996); Becoming century of European intercontinental imperial expansion. We also include cases
Roman: the Origins of Provincial CiJlilization in Gaul (1998). that in some definitions would be classed as non-imperial or at best marginal to
better-known "classic" imperial states (Barfield's "shadow empires"). Our goal
Robin D. S. Yates is Professor of East Asian Studies at McGill University. His was not to develop a single unified intellectual viewpoint, nor to embrace a
recent major publications include: Science and CiJlilisation in China, vo!. V.6 shared terminology or advocate a single methodology (to the disappointment of
(co-author, 1994); Fhle Lost Classics: Tao, Huang-Lao and Tin-Tang in Han some conference participants). Indeed, contributors disagreed on several impor
China (1997); "Early China" in War and Society in the Ancient and Mediepal tant issues, even some as essential as definitions of empire, appropriate or useful
Worlds: Asia, the Mediterranean, Europe and Mesoamerica (1999). scales of comparison, and the utility of working with formal models. Several
authors have explicitly presented their definitions of empire in their papers, and
their differing perspectives will be readily apparent. For the most part however,
disagreements tended to emerge around the margins of issues ratller than on
core concepts, often reflecting the diverse disciplinary perspectives of the XVII
J.'Vlll Preface Preface XiX
contributors. In particular, individual archaeologists were on occasion suspicious such imperial structures to be considered side-by-side with more conventional
of interpretations deeply dependent on texts, while some historians were skepti "anthropological" case studies: usually owing to misconceptions on all sides
cal of accounts heavily reliant on archaeological data. about what they could offer to, or gain from, comparative analysis. Yet this
From the Old World, the chapters by A1cock and Woolf address the Roman volume clearly reveals just what a mistake it would have been to disregard or dis
empire - arguably the paradigmatic example from which many traditional under count these particular imperial systems, and we hope that their inclusion in
standings of empire derive. Rome's significance to later imperial states and to future collections such as this will be less remarkable.
general understandings of imperial societies is also considered in a number of A second barrier to be challenged was chronological. While our primary tem
chapters, especially by MOl'e1and in his discussion of the medieval European poral focus is on empires that are traditionally glossed as "early" (although many
Carolingians. Middle Eastern chapters include MOl'kot on Egypt and Nubia, are in fact temporally quite late), several of the papers push the envelope into
Liverani on the Assyrians, and Kuhrt on the Achaemenids. Asia is considered by European modernity (e.g., Deagan, Subrahmanyam, MacCol'lnack). In part,
Yates on Qin China, Barfield on Central Asia, Morrison on Vijayanagara, India, this emphasis arises from the research interests of the editors; the primary
Sinopoli on Satavahana India, and Subrahmanyam on the Portuguese Estado da research focus of three of us lies in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries C E
india. New World examples include Brumfiel and Smith on the Aztecs, (D'A1troy on the Inka, and Morrison and Sinopoli on Vijayanagara). However,
Schreiber on the Andean Wari empire and D'A1troy on the Inkas. Deagan con for Sinopoli and Morrison in particular, our interests in bridging the
siders the Spanish empire in the Caribbean and North America and ancient-modern divide lay in our skepticism concerning the intellectual legiti
MacCormack addresses the Spanish empire in Peru and Spanish responses to the macy of this divide. This is particularly the case for the early modern period con
Inka, including how these were mediated by their understandings of Rome. sidered here, for which arguments of the uniqueness of Europe's trajectory are
While the cases discussed here form a broad list, they are far from encyclopedic often based on what Europe eventually became in the eighteenth and nineteenth
- either in the range of empires considered or in how each author examines the centuries, rather than what its components were in the preceding 200 years. It
particular period and polity of interest. We regret that two invited participants had is fair to note, however, that neither Deagan nor Subrahmanyam entirely shared
to withdraw from the conference rather late in the day - and thus the Ottoman our misgivings, and wished to retain a special place for their cases or - for
empire and early Islamic empires of the Middle East were left uncovered. African Subrahmanyam - to limit comparison to more historically and geographically
and Southeast Asian empires are also not represented. While the editors discussed proximate examples.
including additional authors who had not participated in the conference in this
volume, we ultimately decided against this - both because we hoped that discus
THEMATIC ORGANIZATION
sions at the conference would figure in authors' revisions of their papers and
because, as is apparent, this already had the makings of a massive publication. The volume's seventeen chapters are organized into five thematic sections, each
Despite these acknowledged gaps, the geographical and temporal ranges repre of which is briefly introduced by one or two of the editors. These themes largely
sented in this volume extend tar beyond any previous comparative study. structured the design of the conterence itself. The groupings are rather different
The volume is also not encyclopedic in terms of the thematic coverage in indi from our original conception of the symposium. Initially, wc had defined four
vidual chapters. That is, while all authors have sought to provide non-specialist very broad sets of issues and asked authors to address one or two. These were,
readers with sufficient background to follow their general arguments, no contribu somewhat prosaically: (1) the vertical and horizontal integration of empires (the
tion is intended as a comprehensive historical essay. Instead, each author addresses political), (2) the social context of imperial development, (3) the ideological
particular themes, l1'om particular perspectives. The volume bibliography can guide sphere, and (4) imperial economies. Introductory discussions of these tour
interested readers to numerous additional sources on each case study. themes were presented in a position paper authored by the tour conterence orga
If the intention was never to create "the big book of empires," this volume nizers and distributed in advance to the participants, with requests that their
and the conference it was based upon did aim to break down some predeter papers address particular themes or topics.
mined and arbitrary boundaries, both disciplinary and temporal. While the broad As the papers came in and we met to determine the final organization of the
scholarly mix of the contributors is noteworthy, perhaps most striking is how the conference, it became clear that many of the authors had, tortunately, not been
cases addressed transcend conventional disciplinary barriers between anthropol particularly obedient to our requests. The resultant papers were ultimately tar
ogy and classical studies (as well as other regional or scholarly traditions). This more interesting than our rather milquetoast (non)position paper (perhaps an
is perhaps most evident in the attention paid to the historic Mediterranean, inevitable result of trying to produce something that could satisfY four cooper
Europe, and the Middle East (Rome, the Carolingians, the Achaemenids), as ative but not necessarily agreeing co-authors - ultimately dissatisfYing to all). It
well as to historic South Asia (Satavahana, Vijayanagara). It is relatively rare for also was apparent that the approaches taken by various authors tended to tall into
xx Preface Preface XXI
both anticipated and unanticipated groupings and it is these groupings that we empire in the context of me Mesoamerican world system; Sinopoli considers the
identified and used to structure the conference and this volume. We therefore South Asian Satavahana empire in the context of broader subcontinental political,
chose not to include either our initial or a revised position paper, but instead economic, and ideological developments, and Deagan addresses tile enormously
opted to write shorter introductions that layout major issues relevant to each expanded world created by Spanish imperial movement into tile Americas.
theme. These preambles draw heavily on our recollections of broader discussions The volume's final section, "The afterlife of empires," considers a tlleme that
that took place in Mijas. runs tllrough a number of chapters throughout the volume. Tllis is the empha
The five themes that structure this volume are to a considerable extent organ sis on history - both in terms of the role of historical knowledge in tile nature
izational devices and each of the chapters addresses a range of issues that extend and construction of individual empires and in questions of historiography and
beyond the individual group it is placed in. Nonetheless, it is our hope that the tile contextualization of historical understandings. The chapters by Liverani,
juxtaposition of papers in these groupings will permit the exploration of struc MOl·eland, and MacCormack consider how historical knowledge was con
tural commonalities and differences among a broad array of cases. We have delib structed and the roles such knowledge plays in particular imperial contexts
erately mixed and matched papers in each section to include a range of historical (Assyrian, Carolingian, and sixteenth-century Spanish, respectively) in con
cases. That is, given our goals and broad commitment to comparativism, we structing imperial identities, understanding imperialllistories, or understanding
chose not to group papers by culture area or period, although some readers may "otllers," whetller subject peoples or competing polities. Liverani approaches
choose to read them in that order. these issues both in the context of Assyrian understandings and in contemporary
Two of the themes - "Imperial integration and imperial subjects" and historical interpretations of the Assyrian collapse. Throughout the conference,
"Imperial ideologies" - are relatively straightforward and require no additional he repeatedly reminded us that we needed to take into account our own aca
discussion beyond their respective section introductions. The first grouping of demic and historiographic contexts. Beyond the tluee chapters grouped in tile
papers into "Sources, approaches, definitions" may, however, seem a bit more "Afterlife" section, several others explore historical knowledge. Alcock addresses
opaque. Here we include chapters that address very different and widely variable history and memory in her discussion of memory theaters in Roman Greece, and
historical cases. The Wari polity discussed by Schreiber is the only empire consid Sinopoli considers Satavahana historical knowledge in Early Historic India.
ered in this volume where historical written sources (internal or external) are non D'Altroy draws attention to the interplay between the control of history and
existent and scholars must rely solely on archaeological evidence. It also is the case political power, and Yates and Woolf also touch on similar concerns. In most of
that provoked the greatest skepticism among conference participants. More these cases, the founders of empires had considerable knowledge of earlier pol
explicitly than any other contributor (though see also Smith, chapter 5), ities and of subject areas and peoples and used that knowledge in the construc
Schrei ber explores the nature and particular challenges ofa rchaeological evidence tion and legitimation of their positions and polities. Deagan's discussion presents
and interpretation for the study of early empires. Kuhrt's discussion of the a strikingly different case of imperial conquest and consolidation, in which, at
Achaemenid, or Persian, empire addresses a case where considerable archaeo least in the initial stages of Spanish expansion in the New World, knowledge (his
logical material exists, but where surprisingly little systematic archaeological torical or otherwise) of su bject populations was non -existent.
research has occurred. Thus her primary sources are historical and she presents a While these papers and themes encompass a broad array ofissues and evidence,
detailed discussion of the use of such sources, their limitations, and their impact it is also worth briefly considering some important topics that are not addressed
on our interpretations. Bat·field and Subrahmanyam each address polities that do in the volume. It is perhaps most striking that none of the authors chose to
not conform to many traditional understandings of empire - the nomad empires discuss military practices or strategies, given how key these are to the formation
of the Eurasian steppe, and the maritime empire of the Portuguese, characterized of all of the empires considered. Brumfiel does consider elite ideologies of mili
by extraordinary geographic range, but minimal territorial control. Their papers tarism, and several other chapters briefly touch on the topic, but no autllOr took
were placed in this section to open up broader considerations of what we mean on military strategy, tactics, or logistics as a core topic. The lack of emphasis on
by empire, and indeed whether the kinds of comparison attempted in this volume militarism is certainly in part a function of the group of individuals invited to par
are worthwhile across such an extensive frame. ticipate in the conference. But we think it also reflects some disciplinary (and
The section entitled "Empires in a wider world" contains three chapters that perhaps global political) trends - of increasing concerns with ideological dimen
suggest that, in order to understand particular empires, we often need to look sions of complex societies and of increasing interest in the broader array of non
beyond imperial boundaries to consider their broader political, economic, and coercive (or, perhaps, more su btly coercive) mechanisms involved in imperial
social contexts. This may be an obvious lesson, but the challenges it presents are formation and consolidation.
still daunting, especially for those of us who feel that the particular empire that we An additional issue of balance was also discussed at the conference, but ulti
study is more tllan enough to take on as a research topic. Smith addresses the Aztec mately received only limited coverage in the published chapters. It concerns the